Lupine Publishers | Nutritional Factors and Three Most Prevalent Types of Osteoarthritis Arthritis - A Short Review

 Lupine Publishers | scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

One of the most common diseases of bone is arthritis. This disease affects the movable joints like that of knee, knuckles and some time hip joint. The three types of arthritis that are usually observed are osteoarthritis, rheumatoid osteoarthritis and gout related osteoarthritis. Basically in all these types of osteoarthritis, vitamin K related diet intake is recommended as this vitamin activates the GLa proteins by γ carboxylation resulting in proper mineralization of bones and cartilages. In case of Gout related arthritis, purine rich food should be avoided along with alcoholic drinks like beer.

Keywords: Arthritis, Osteoarthritis, Cartilage, Gout, Vitamin K

Introduction

The word arthritis indicates pain in joints in the body. It is because in the joints the two bones are separated by a soft tissue which mostly cartilaginous in nature. Its only when this soft tissue is degenerated then the two ossified bones rubs against each other to generate pains. This is the simplest form of explanation for arthritis [1]. Therefore, one can note that the disease is a degenerative disease. There are different reasons for such a degeneration of the soft tissue. One of the most common reason when the degeneration occurs in the hip joints or in the knee joints is because of overweight of the body which is borne on these two types of joints for a long time leading to gradual degeneration of the soft tissue at these joints. Some time due excessive physical work like lifting of heavy loads can also result in degeneration over a period. Ultimately the last but not the least reason is that the degeneration is due to an autoimmune condition when the immune system of the body destroys this soft tissue in the joints. This condition is called as rheumatoid arthritis [2]. The other two reasons stated prior to this leads to what is known as osteoarthritis. The third arthritis that one often sees is due to deposition of uric acid crystals in the joints leading to inflammation of the joints and this is the gout related arthritis [3]. The suffering (mostly the excruciating pain) is further aggravated by psychological conditions in many elderly people when patients are living an isolated solitary life with nobody nearby [4].

Preventive Nutritional Factors

Whatever may be the reason, the most important question often asked is: can this degeneration be prevented or ameliorated by nutritional factors? If one sees the literature available on prevention of such a condition [5], then one would see that two important vitamins should be provided through nutrition and these are viz. vitamin D and more important is vitamin K or phylloquinone, which is responsible for γ carboxylation of Gla proteins like Matrix Gla proteins (MGP proteins) , osteocalcin, Gas 6 etc. The active form of these proteins (produced in presence of vitamin K) is responsible for bone and cartilage mineralization in joints [5]. The inactive forms have no functions at all. If these do not take place properly then osteoarthritis symptoms are seen (especially in knee joints). Figure 1 shows a X-ray image of normal knee joint and Figure 2 shows X-ray image of a osteoarthritic knee joint.

Vitamin K rich foods are leafy vegetables like spinach, cauliflower, cabbage etc. These nutritional advice also ameliorate rheumatoid arthritis also to some extent but should be combined with other chemotherapeutic treatment. In case of gout (previously referred to as king’s disease) related arthritis, is due to consumption of food that causes slow-down of removal of uric acid [6]. These include foods which are rich in purines and drinking too much alcohol especially beer. The other factors are overweight, diabetes, taking certain diuretics. This uric acid will then get deposited in crystalline form in the joints causing pains like osteoarthritis as movability of these joints gets highly restricted. The patients are advised under such condition is to avoid highly proteinaceous food like meat, eggs etc. like along with drinks like beer. Figure 3 shows foods that must be avoided by patients suffering from gout and Figure 4 shows the foods that should be taken (of course keeping other health related conditions in mind) by patients of gout.

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Lupine Publishers | Raya Indigenous Livestock Husbandry Practices in the Highlands of Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

 Lupine Publishers | scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Raya indigenous livestock husbandry practices was conducted in Emba-Alaje Enda-Mekoni and Ofla Wereda of Southern Tigray, featured by mountain chains and located at 12°47’ N latitude 39°32’ E longitude. with the aim to determine constraints and opportunities that exist within the farming systems, for better targeted improvement and to design policies strategies to support peculiar livestock husbandry practice, since it is experiences of the greatest successes stories of developing country agriculture and one of the most unsung, especially in the disadvantaged marginalized areas. Single household respondent was used as sampling unit, using Proportional Probability to Size approach. Out of 156HHs, 73.5% were male headed while 26.5% female-headed. Educational status of HHs members was diverse that was composed of 12.8% educated while 41%HHs members were illiterate. Average family size was 4.6±1.84. 83.33%HHs used own family labour, while others use hired labour. Feeding, watering, barn cleaning, animal keeping, monitoring animal health, cow milking, and selling dung cake tasks of wives and children, while feed purchase, buying and selling animals were husband’s duty. Age at first calving was 3.5 years for local while 2.5years for exotic breeds and calving interval was similar 1.5 year. The average milk yield was 2±1 litres for Arado, 5±1 litres for jersey and 10±2 litres for Holstein Frisians. The average cattle herd size were 3+1 in urban, 4.67+4.93 in periurban and 3.75±2.12 in rural farms. There was significant (P< 0.05) difference for cattle breed in lactation length and milk yield but no remarked (p>0.05) difference in Wereda level. Housing system of the study areas were featured backyard compound in 62.18% of the respondents, partial shelter in 17.95% of the respondents and improved barn in 19.87% of the dairy farmer respondents. Alternative interventions for betterment of the indigenous husbandry practice is with the climate change are timely scenario.

Keywords: Raya, Indigenous livestock husbandry, Arado, Holestain fresian

Introduction

Domestication of ruminant animals and their use to produce milk, meat, wool, and hides represents one of the cornerstone achievements in the history of agriculture. The essential feature of the ruminant animal that has fostered its utility as a dairy animal is the presence of a large pre-gastric chamber where microbial digestion of feed particularly fibrous feeds not directly digestible by human, provides various fermentation products that serve as precursors for efficient and voluminous synthesis of milk. Without this symbiosis between animal and microbe, the dairy industry would not have developed, and indeed human culture would be vastly different in its food-gathering methods (Weimer and James, 2001).

In Ethiopia, the livestock production system, which is dominated by indigenous breeds of low genetic potential for milk production, accounts for about 98% of the country’s total annual milk production. The low productivity of the country’s livestock production system in general and the traditional sector in particular is mainly attributed to shortage of crossbred dairy cows; lack of capital by dairy producers, inadequate animal feed resources both in terms of quality and quantity; unimproved animal husbandry system; inefficient and inadequate milk processing materials and methods; low milk production and supply to milk processing centers; and poor marketing system. Making improvement interventions to the traditional sector is, therefore, crucial if development of the livestock sector of the country is targeted. Its large livestock population; the favorable climate for improved, high-yielding animal breeds; and the relatively diseasefree environment for livestock make Ethiopia to hold a substantial potential for dairy development. Considering the substantial potential for smallholder income and employment generation from high-value livestock products, development of the dairy sector can contribute significantly to poverty alleviation and nutrition in the country. With the present trend characterized by transition towards market-oriented economy, the dairy sector appears to be moving towards a takeoff stage [1].

Dairy enterprises are the “white gold” of many developing countries, creating pathways out of poverty while boosting better human nutrition and health, regular income generation, employment, crop farming, and natural resource management. The context for smallholder dairy development in Ethiopia has been changing rapidly, creating both new opportunities and challenges [2]. According to Mburu [3] characterization of smallholder dairy production systems in highlands is critical in understanding the constraints and opportunities that exist within the farming systems. It allows better targeting of dairy improvement research and development. Therefore, information obtained can be valuable for detailed analysis of constraints and opportunities found in smallholder dairy systems and to design policies and strategies to support smallholder dairy development programs in variable intensification that one has to be aware of the challenges of dairy which, is one of the greatest successes stories of developing country agriculture and one of the most unsung, especially in the disadvantaged marginalized areas.

The bulk of Ethiopian livestock’s provision to the economy is not properly identified in conventional national accounts as coming from livestock. These distortions are particularly acute for highland livestock production systems in which animal energy for transport and dung for fuel are as important as conventional milk and meat production [4] that confirmed less attention was given to the sector despite its indispensible contribution to the economy of the majority of dairy farmers and the nation.

Livestock production in Ethiopia is constrained by a multitude of technical, financial, institutional and socio-economic factors [5]. Coordinating inputs (knowledge, finance, social and political capital) of various actors and their expectations in a way to create best practices and innovations could contribute better exploitation of the resource [2]. ‘When there is no bridge, there is always other means!’ [1]. The marginalized disadvantaged dairy farmers did not have exposure and access to affordable improved technological facilities that enable livestock production ease and profitable; consequently they do act according to their local resources and custom which demand due focus and research.

In Ethiopia, particularly in the highlands of Southern Tigray where previous research is very meagre [5], the indigenous livestock husbandry system is very peculiar than any other areas since long period of time but the doubt is their extent of production in comparison to their demand, nutritional needs and economic values, that is why the objective of this paper has targeted on the main indigenous livestock husbandry practices in relation to the livestock resource potential. Thus this work was initiated with the following objectives:-

1. To identify indigenous livestock husbandry practices & constraints in the study area, and

2. To determine the livestock breed composition of the area

Materials and Methods

The research was conducted in Emba-Alaje Enda-Mekoni and Ofla Wereda of Southern Tigray, from December 01, 2011 to February 30 2012, which are featured by mountain chains, where Maichew of Enda-Mekoni is located at 12°47’ N latitude 39°32’ E longitude and an altitude of 2450m.a.s.l. It has a rainfall ranging from 600-800mm , temperature ranging 12-24oC, and relative humidity of 80% , which is highly variable from year to year and erratic in nature. The district is located on about 90-180km south of Mekelle city and 600-690Km north of the capital city Addis Ababa. The study area is also categorized as one of the populated highland areas of the country where land per household is 0.8h. Korem of Ofla lay on 12029’N latitude, 39o32’E longitude and that of Adishehu of Emba-Alaje is located on 120 56’N latitude and 39029’E longitude [6].

Single household respondent was used as sampling unit and sample size determination was applied according to the formula recommended by Arsham [7] for survey studies:

SE = (Confidence Interval)/(Confidence level) = 0.10/2.58 = 0.04, n= 0.25/SE² = 0.25 / (0.04)²= 156

Where, confidence interval=10% and confidence level=99%

Where: N- is number of sample size

SE= Standard error, that SE is at a maximum when p= q = 0.5, with the assumption of 4% standard error and 99% confidence level.

The total sample size was determined to be 156 for the household level interview. Proportional Probability to Size (PPS) approach for uniformity matters as Desalegn [8]. Three approaches namely, participatory rural appraisal for base line information and formal (diagnostic) survey using well-structured questionnaire, farm visit & group discussions of the entire system were used to generate qualitative & quantitative data.

A translated pretested semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on quantitative and qualitative data: Demographic situations, level of education, type of dairy breed, production performance, production objectives, variety of products, husbandry system, major production constraints, livestock disease incidences; opportunities for improvement and other related issues.. For the field survey, the method of data collection used was single- visit-multiple-subject survey. Data collected were analyzed using Microsoft Excel [9] and Statistical Package for Social Sciences [10] computer software program. Survey results were summarized using descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, and percents; mean differences were tested using student’s t.

Result

The results obtained on household characteristics are presented in (Table 1). As shown, 25.6% of the respondents were less than 40 years of age, 51.3% of them aged 41-60 years while those with the age of more than 60 were only 23.1%. Of the total households interviewed, 73.5% were headed by males the rest being female-headed. When the issue comes to literacy level, the educational status of the household members was diverse that was composed of 12.8% educated while 41% of the household members were illiterate (i.e., do not read and write). Average family size was 4.6±1.84 that ranged from 1 to 14. Labour use, 83.33% of the interviewed households used own family labour, where as the other proportion of them use hired labour in addition for dairy farming. Feeding, watering, barn cleaning, animal keeping, monitoring animal health, cow milking, and selling dung cake were performed mainly by wives and children, while feed purchase, buying and selling animals were responsibilities of the husband.

Milking Procedure Practiced

Milking twice per day (morning and evening) was the tradition followed by all households. Among the respondent dairy farmers, 25% of both urban and periurban dairy farmers practice zero grazing and milk their animals at a regular time of the day to supply the product according to their customers demand (Table 2). Whereas the rest of the proportion do not follow regular time of milking apart from maintaining the frequency. The housing systems, the cleaning processes and the procedures followed by the household are predominantly traditional. Udder washing was practiced by 10.89% respondents, of which 23.10% were from Emba-Alaje, 35.3% from Enda-Mekoni, 29.4% were from Ofla urban and 8.6% were Ofla rural areas who introduced cross breed cows.

Feeding Practice

Crop residues from teff, pulses, barley, wheat and maize and sorghum plus hay and natural pasture are the major feed resources the study area. Coping mechanisms practiced in the study areas during feed scarcity were moving to areas with available feed termed as ‘urna’, providing grass harvested from sloppy hills. The other important feed resources include spineless and thorny Cactus while some do practice forage development minimally. The crop residue conservation practices followed by the farmers are subject to nutritional losses. In the urban dairy farming, use of concentrate feeds is a potential alternative through which productivity of cows can be improved; however, the high cost was a limiting factor. Majority of the dairy farmers use leftover house hold feeds such as hull of grain after milling. Hatela (slurry from local brew) was another form of concentrate feed available (Figures 1 & 2).

Housing Systems

Housing system of the study areas were featured backyard compound in 62.18% of the respondents, partial shelter in 17.95% of the respondents and improved barn in 19.87% of the dairy farmer respondents. In Urban Emba-Alaje, 76.92% of the respondents practiced improved housing but not hygienic for they do not clean the barn because they deemed crucial bedding to absorb heat for the animals (Figure 3).

Calf Rearing

Cattle are kept in barns under normal circumstances and calves are kept in houses until they are strong enough to bear the extreme climatic phenomena. Young animals are managed in a traditional way. Suckling calves are kept separate from their dams, except when calves are used to stimulate milk letdown. Traditionally, calve suckling practice is believed to stimulate milk letdown, prevent teat blockage and softened the teat for ease of hand milking. If the calf dies, the hide is stuffed with cereal straw or grass with four legs made of sticks, rubbed by salt so that the dam would lick it to simulate the presence of the calf and stimulate milk letdown. Young children and females in general do mostly attend calves near encampments. Herders are well aware of colostrum feeding for the new born animals and understand the beneficial effect on health of the young.

In all the rural and periurban areas calves are herded in group by child and/or widowed of misery part of the community and encouraged by providing milk of every Wednesday termed as ‘tseba rebue’, while urban areas do practice tethering in backyards. Overnight, calves do spent in calf pen (urban and periurban) or in the normal household home (rural areas) isolated from their dams or herd. In local cows majority of the dairy farmers responded until the cow become dry of that rejects her calf from suckling was related with end of lactation period. But those owners of exotic do practice 4-6 months suckling before weaning. Traditionally, the herders use different types of weaning methods. Weaning is performed by piercing the nose of the calf with thorns, twisting up the nose skin of the calves to prevent suckling (as this causes pain when the wounded nose touches the teat) and smearing of teats with animal dung (Figures 4 & 5).

 

Record keeping

The most important record kept in the dairy farms was birth date that was considered in 44.9% respondents followed by 29.49% respondents to record amount of milk sold, 27.56% respondents used breeding record and 27.56% respondents used feed expenditure record, while 53.20% of the respondents do follow random husbandry practice. Breeding record, birth date and feed cost are recorded. Wereda level 72% of respondents from Enda-Mekoni, 33.33% respondents from Emba-Alaje and 32.76% of respondents from Ofla had record keeping trials (Table 3).

Milk Products Marketing

It was noticed that milk marketing was limited to urban and periurban areas but not in the rural districts. The major milk marketing challenges the respondents complained were 52.56% claimed cultural taboos and distance from market areas while 26.92% of the respondent dairy farmers blamed the discouraging market due to lower understanding of consumers to milk nutrition, poor talents of entrepreneurship of milk producers, and lack of road to transport milk from remote areas. Majority of the studied households reported that the demand for the milk products was high during dry season and low during wet season, besides to the fasting periods.

In the study area, the smallholders rear livestock for draught power, milk production, beef production and generate income through live animal sale, especially as a guarantee in case of risk. Also respondents indicated that cattle were used as manure for fertilizing the homestead farmland and compaction of seedbeds. Hide and skin of the animal was used either as source of cash income or used as household furniture such as grain storage, mat and to carry a baby on back of mothers locally termed as “delobo” Others: include manure, dung to smear floors and walls and also for fuel (for cooking purpose or to fire alternative thorny cactus feed). Concerning to dung utilization, 5% of Ofla Wereda respondents do practice biogas, while the rural Enda-Mekoni in vicinity to Ofla have exposure and were in infant stage unlike to Emba-Alaje Wereda where there was no dream of biogas. The interesting thing is dairy farmers exchange dung cake for hatela concentrate feed contracts in majority of urban dairy farms or else cover some part of household earning by selling particularly females of the household (Figure 6).

Age at first calving was 3.5 years for local while 2.5years for exotic breeds and calving interval was similar 1.5 year. The average milk yield was 2±1 litres for Arado, 5±1 litres for jersey and10±2 litres for Holstein Frisians. The average cattle herd size were 3+1 in urban, 4.67+4.93 in periurban and 3.75±2.12 in rural farms. The population of Holstein Frisian decreased from urban to rural while that of the Arado breed increased, indicating that dairy farming in rural destined on Arado while urban destined on Holstein Frisian breeds. Milking cows of the study areas were 23.1% out of 845 cattle owned by the respondents, which were composed of 631 local including Arado, Raya and Begait breeds and 214 crossbred of Holstein Frisian and Jersey upgraded cattle (Figure 7) (Table 4).

Animal Health Challenges

There was outbreak of FMD regional level, in particular, Emba- Alaje area but controlled due to regional vaccination campaign. In steep gorges of mountain area and less infrastructure, efficiency of the veterinary services or the veterinary personnel highly depends on the availability of facilities such as transportation, veterinary equipment, drugs. Besides, the farmers practice folklore medicine, to save their animals by bleeding, branding and use of herbal medicines. Urban dairy farmers do have better access to veterinary service that could be affordable in comparative to their income from milk. The steep gorges of the study area are part of animal and human hazard losses that enforced some farmers to stick on zero grazing. The author has also experienced to see severely broken or death of animals through falling in the steep gorges (Figure 8) (Table 5).

CBPP= Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia

Discussion

The mean value of family size in the study areas 4.6±1.84 persons was comparable to CSA [6] report which was 4.5 for Enda- Mekoni, 4.29 for Ofla and 4.36 persons to a household for Emba- Alaje. This slight difference might be the reflection of the steady growth of the population. The proportion of the households who participated in the dairy technology package was 28.8%. In terms of labour use, 83.33% of the interviewed households used own family labour, where as the other proportion of them use hired labour in addition for dairy farming. Feeding, watering, barn cleaning, animal keeping, regulating animal health, cow milking, churning milk, milk selling and selling dung cake were more of performed by wife and children, while feed purchase, buying and selling animals as well as medication activities (bleeding and branding), were responsibility of the husband. Sell and purchase of dairy animals belong to the spouses more of men while women discharge feeding, milking and dairy products processing and selling. Herding to adolescents or hired in free grazing on communal natural pastures that constituted almost the only feed resource for all rural dairy farmers. Similar work by Girma, et al. [11] characterized that children are the primary care takers of cattle at day time. Rural dairy farms are characterized by roofless fenced enclosures to keep cattle during night times; calves being separated from adults and housed in the same shelter with households, however, dairy farming packaged households do abide by zero grazing and modified shelter for the hybrid Holstein Frisian cows.

Milking cows of the study areas were 23.1% out of 845 cattle owned by the respondents, which were composed of 631 local including Arado, Raya and Begait breeds and 214 crossbred of Holstein Frisian and upgraded Jersey cattle The result is indifferent from MoA (2004) report in Ethiopia that 11.82% of 2990 cattle population in 1998 was milking cows. That could be due to time difference and business mindedness of dairy farmers in urban agriculture now than draught oxen focus by the then time. The population of Holstein Frisian decreased from urban to rural while that of the Arado breed increased, indicating that dairy farming in rural destined on Arado while urban destined on Holstein Frisian breeds. Milking twice a day is similar to the milking frequency practiced in many parts of the country. Time of milking is normally early morning and late evening that is consistent with Sintayehu (2008). But time of the day particularly morning hours could vary that milking is delayed during cool seasons.

Average age at first calving was 3.5 years for local, while 2.5 years for exotic breeds and calving interval was similar 1.5 year. The lactation length was averaged 6±1 months for local cows while 8±1 months for exotic breeds that matched with Dawit (2009) report in Eastern Tigray who also summarized, milk yield of local breeds from 1.8±0.4 in Arado to 5±0.5 of Begait breeds. The average milk yield was 2±1 litres for local breeds, 5±1.5 litres for hybrid jersey and10±2 litres for hybrid Holstein Frisians. There was significant (P< 0.05) difference for cattle breed in lactation length and milk yield but no remarked (p>0.05) difference in Wereda level. Highest lactation length recorded in Maichew Holstein Frisian was 2 years, contrary to the universal record of 10 months exotic breeds, actually the cows displayed no observed heat. The study result disagreed with Mulugeta [12] who reported average daily milk off take from local cows 1.09 litres and crossbred cow 5.97 litres, with overall lactation length of both local and crossbred cows was 7.52±1.64 months as per farmer’s statements. Adebabay [13] recorded local cow’s milk yield of 1.46kg/cow/day. Genzebu (2012) in northern Tigray also added that Arado cows give an average milk yield of 1 - 2 liters/day for an average lactation period of 7.3 months.

In close affinity to Asfaw (2010) work in Arsi zone, generally more number of services per conception was reported using AI as compared to natural mating, attributed to inefficient AI services that included poor quality semen, poor heat detection techniques and inaccurate AI services. The same is true in feeding system that dairy producers practiced inadequate crop residue storage that hinders productivity of the animals. Similar to the reports of FAO, IDF [14] and Thapa (2000) dairy production was influenced by feed problem, poor animal health services and shortage of drugs, dissemination of poor genetic material, poor government attention to dairying, unreliable AI service, working land shortage to expand and/or forage development, market problems for dairy products, financial problem (absence of credit), waste disposal, lack of recording system (poor information flow), lack/poor extension service & training, lower understanding of the respondent, poor hospitality of AI/ veterinary renders. Traditional medication practice such as bleeding and hot branding that damage hide economy of the nation for unreliable remedy could be minimized as remarked PPLPI [15] by pen side diagnostics for common diseases.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Livestock production plays an important role in the socioeconomic and cultural life of the people inhabiting in the mountainous chains of the area. The cows fulfil an indispensable role for the dairy farmers serving as sources drought ox, milk food, income from sale of butter, the only determinant women hair lotion, source of dunk cake for family fuel and served as prestige and confidence to avert risks. The respondent remarked Wedi Lahimika for own bull and no one could cheer you what a cow could do indeed” to mean reliable resource and do have special dignity for the cow [16,17].

Establishment of dairy shades in the urban areas enabled to strengthen women economy who could not have initial capital and land access, to create employment opportunity and access of protein feeds to the other part of society. The marginalized disadvantaged dairy farmers do not have exposure and access to affordable improved technological products to handle and process their milk products where balanced scenarios are implemented by avoiding pasteurizing and packaging costs, raw milk markets offer both higher prices to producers and lower prices to consumers. Constraints of dairy farming involve higher cost of dairy cows, disease problems, fasting leads to poor milk demand, low productivity of the cows, technology to improve shelf life of milk products, fear of hazards, thefts and predators, and land scarcity particularly in the case of mountain area where fragmentation of land is distributed ‘gebo meqolo’ for landless youths. Steep cliff of the area has its own agro-ecological advantage, but featured by cattle falling hazards [18-21].

The amount of milk collected for a single churn varies with the number of milking cows and their productivity. Interventions in input supply system, production technologies, processing, and marketing practice including the crossbred heifer supply, AI and bull services, vaccination, emerging infectious animal diseases prevention and treatment, development of feed sources, access to dairy production technologies, access to market and market information and supportive infrastructure development, and capacity development on skills of dairy cows management are all in infant stage in the Wereda that demand integrated implementation.

1. To recommend possible interventions for the betterment of existing conditions

2. Further study on nutritional composition of cactus feed mixes

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Lupine publishers | Forage Production Potential of Maize - Cowpea Intercropping in Maichew - Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

 Lupine publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Needless to mention the ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food & commercial crops, diminishing the area for forage production. RCBD five treatments with three replications experiment compared maize grown as sole crop with maizecowpea intercropped to assess agronomic, nutritional and economic returns of forage production. Average plant performance ranged 122.85-174.19cm maize plant height; 20.7-26.4cm ear length, & number of leaves/maize plant was 9.13-10.52. The effect of intercropping treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though T5 yielded higher and higher 100 maize grains weight followed by T4 yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; T3 (3.05ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize T2 (2.24ton/ha), confirming that intercropping has at least, some scenario better than sole cropping practices. There was no significant soil NPK effect pre-sowing and postharvest.

Nutritionally, feed quality of maize parts was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value of cowpea hay, as follows: NDF (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP. lignin content (T1>T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). NDF content was significantly higher in maize stem and least in grain. Maize husk significantly over dominated in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain in descending order. ADF content was great significant in the entire parts that maize husk has higher than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all maize parts. Similarly, maize stem was significantly higher in lignin than husk, leaf and grain. LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating yield advantage over sole crops. T4 has the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize performances. Favourable seasons for better DM yield and chemical composition of both crops should be researched.

Keywords: Maichew, Forage, Maize-Cowpea Intercropping, Yield, Chemical composition

Abbrevations: BCR: Benefit Cost Ratio, MAI: Monetary Advantage Index

Introduction

Background and Justification

Farming systems in most Africa is under serious threat due to increasing population growth and environmental degradation. The difficulty has highlighted the need to take an overall view of land management that is not limited only to livestock & crop production systems but also includes the need to conserve natural resources. Currently, arable farming is expanding at the expense of traditional grazing land. This is putting pressure on grazing resources resulting inadequate feed resource for livestock both in terms of quality and quantity [1]. Belete [2] also reported that production increases resulted from expanding cultivated area not from increasing yield, despite the fact that the land frontier, especially in the highlands, has shrunk. Under these situations, development of integrated forage-cereal-livestock systems offers method of accommodating & improving crop - livestock production systems [3]. Although farmers often appreciate the need for fertilizer inputs, the demand isn’t effective due to high prices, insecure supplies, and in some cases because farmers have a high aversion to the risks associated with food production in marginal agroclimatic &socioeconomic conditions. Fertilizer prices at farm gate are also excessively high due to thin markets, lack of domestic production capacity, poorly developed infrastructure, and inefficient production systems [4].

Statement of the Problem

90% of animal feed supply is expected from natural range. This however, is available in marshy areas, rift-valleys, mountain scarves which are also diminished from time to time because of overstocking, overgrazing, and frequent droughts. Due to ever increasing pressure on cultivated land for food and commercial crops, it may not be possible to increase the area for forage production [5]. Integration gap in livestock-crop interactions created problems facing forage development in Ethiopia acting bottleneck to livestock productivity [6]. Growing of forage legumes intercropping enables to use the small farm land for both crop and feed production. The system offers a potential for increasing fodder without appreciable reduction of grain production.

Objectives of the Study

1. To evaluate effect of maize and cowpea mixtures on the agronomic practice,

2. To determine impact of intercropping on nutritional content of the crop parts, and

3. To assess forage production potential of maize and cowpea intercropping on economic returns

Materials and Methods

Description of the Study Area

The research was conducted in Maichew ATVET farm land, from July 20- December 30, 2011, located at 12°47’ N latitude 39°32’ E longitude, 2450m.a.s.l. It has 600-800mm rainfall, 12- 24oC temperature, and 80% relative humidity. The hottest months are April-June with average 22.92°C; whereas the coldest months are November- January with 12.47°C on average. The district is situated about 120km south of Mekelle city, North of Ethiopia. In the highland mixed crop livestock farming system, maize, and wheat, normal barley, 6 row barley (“Abiy-ekli”), Teff, pulses such as dekoko, chickpea, vetch, beans and peas are the main cash crops in the zone. Despite the mountainous terrain which limits availability of cultivable land, the combination of fertile soils, adequate rainfall and suitable temperatures produce good yields which make this zone food sufficient comparatively.

Experimental Design and Treatments

Five treatments (two monocultures and three mixtures of maize & cowpea) were included in the experiment with a proportion; 1C:1M for T4, 1C:2M for T5 and 2C:1M for T3 and sole crops of cowpea (T1) and maize (T2) included as check to compare yields of intercropped mixtures. The experimental design was RCBD with three replications. The treatments included seed proportions as follows 144:0 (100% cowpea), 0:144 (100% maize), 96:48 (67% cowpea: 37% maize), 72:72 (50% cowpea: 50% maize) and 48:96 (33% cowpea: 67% maize). The land was ploughed and ridged then divided into 15 plots (3.6m x5.4m= 19.44m2 each) and 1m plot spacing, in 18.2m *22m= 400.4m2 leveled total area. Frost damaged the cowpea forage on 26th December 2011 night that Maichew meteorological station recorded -10c, after 10% pod formation and early blooming. Based on the indigenous knowledge practices of the surroundings, the research maize (Katumani/Beletech) termed “Arkib or Fetino” for its fast growing yellowish small sized deemed as reliable in the late on set and early cessation rainfall pattern and Cowpea, the multipurpose legume was supposed to minimize the cost of production for fertilizer under nitrogen-limiting conditions and under water-limiting conditions, so that the requirements for maintenance of high intercrop maize yields can be defined.

Sampling Procedure, Data Collection, and Analysis

Soil sample collected diagonally from the middle 3 rows of the plot for both pre-sowing (surface level during bed preparation) and post harvest (from roots of the crops). Laboratory analysis for soil and plant NPK was conducted using wet chemistry technique while DM and Fiber contents using NIRS. Dry oven used to determine plant DM% and other chemical analysis in 65oC for 24 hours and to analyze soil NPKs in 105oC for 24 hours. Fresh matter yield was estimated from harvesting herbage from 3.6m x5.4m quadrant in the central rows of each plot. The dried composite forage and grain samples from each treatment were milled to pass via a 1mm sieve for targeted analysis. Maize and cowpea forages as well as maize grain quality were determined in terms of percentage: - NPKs, CP, Ash, DM, ADF, NDF, ADL, IVDMD and soil NPK analysis. Yields were assessed based on intercropping indices as measures ratio of individual LERs, Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) an indication of the economic values of grain and stover produced estimation, germination rate and time to reach blooming were considered for quantitative statistics. In each experiment, sowing was done by row method. All other cultural management practices including (watering, thinning and weeding) were kept normal and uniform for all the treatments.

The collected samples analyzed for DM, CP and ash according to the procedures and NDF, ADF and ADL determined according to the method of Van Soest, et al. [7]. For DM yield determination, two middle rows were harvested when the maize component reached dough stage and the harvested biomass was then be separated in to grass and legume components. The fresh weight recorded just after partitioning and the sub samples of each component species forced in dry oven at 65oC for 24 hours to determine the DM content. This percentage DM used to determine herbage yield on per hectare basis. Biological yield advantages and species compatibility of the intercropping were assessed using LER. If LER is greater than one, then intercropping has a yield advantage [8,9]. The chemical analysis of the feed samples was done using the standard methods AOAC. Nitrogen was analyzed using the Kjeldhal procedure and crude protein was determined by multiplying %N by the factor 6.25. NDF and ADF determined by the procedures described by Goering and Van Soest [7]. IVDMD was determined using Tilley and Terry in vitro technique. Soil and plant NPK was determined followed by maize and cowpea plant parts Near-infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy. Samples were dried, ground and sieved (Adesogan 2000).

Statistical Data Analyses

Data analyzed by ANOVA, Correlation manipulated using basic statistics and LSM difference student’s t test of JMP 5 (2002). The statistical model was:- Yij=μ + Bi + Tj+ Eij,

Where, Yij=observation in block i and treatment j, μ=Overall sample mean, Bi=Effect of block j,

Ti= Effect of treatment i, Eij = Error.

Results and Discussion

Germination rate was more than 75% for both crops within a week time and maize started tasseling on 3^rd month while cowpea begun blooming on the end of 4^th month. In the study plot 400m2 there have been 713 cowpea and 955 maize plants that had 1780 maize ears (1.86 ears/maize plant) of which 937 ears (52.64%) had been fruitful bearing seeds and 5.73% out of the total maize, were also damaged by birds even though closely guarded during early mornings and late evenings. Damaged ears were covered using maize leaf or plastics. In both crops, sole cropping and higher ratio of respective seed outweigh the intercropping due to minimum inter-competition. In cowpea (Tables 1 & 2) forage yield T1 was highly significant (p<.05) than other cowpea intercropping systems which were likely to each other. T1 produced more DM% than in intercropping systems. T5 has the lowest cowpea DM, and shortest cowpea plant height, due to reduced cowpea growth. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decreased growth rates (Figure 1). The effect of forage integration treatments on maize forage yield was significant (P<.05), however, there was no significant difference in grain yield among the cropping systems though treatment 5 yielded higher (5.46 ton/ha) and higher 100 maize grains weight (24.98g), followed by treatment 4 (4.38 ton/ha) yield and 21.74g average 100 maize grain weight; treatment 3 (3.05 ton/ha) and 21.84g average 100 maize seeds and the least in yield was actually the sole maize treatment 2 (2.24 ton/ha).as indicated in (Tables 2 & 3).

There were no remarkable differences (P > 0.05) in maize plant height due to the intercropping, rather the maize sole crop outweighed, followed by reducing proportion of the cowpea. Maize leaf number/plant were 99.7% similar (p>0.05) among treatments that there was no use of variation in cropping system, however, T4 formed significantly higher leaf number from other treatments. Maize biomass was higher in the sole crop followed by T5 where the seed ratio outweighed others. T4 and T3 maize biomass was typical also (Figure 1). There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in maize ear length and grains/cob among the treatments. However, T4 were significantly higher from others, both in maize ear length and grains/cob, indicating that maize ear length determined number of grains/cob in maize plants (Table 2).

Similar to many studies, number of growing days in the highland (2450m.a.s.l) was supposed to reach in 3 months, but everything delayed to 5 months. The research result agreed with Samuel and Mesfin [10]; Diriba and Lemma [1], who reported that high biomass of maize in sole crop, compared to their respective intercrops has been obtained due to interspecific completion and rust damage of the maize. Maize yield reduction in intercropped compared to T2 could be due to a higher degree of interspecific competition in mixed stands and the absence of interspecific competition in the sole crops similar to the investigation [5]. Results from previous studies indicated that shade effects on growth and yield of legume crops decreased DM yield and increased plant height [10]. Thobatsi [9] has also reported that taller maize cultivars result in lower yield of intercropped cowpeas, compared to shorter cultivars due to the increased shading effects. Contrary to the studies of shade effect on the cowpea, the research enabled to determine maize nursing effect from frost damage on cowpea (Table 1).

The increase in DM% production of maize in intercropping compared T2 might be attributed to the fact that maize is a more aggressive component crop in the intercropped system. Similar results had been reported by numerous investigators [10] who found that DM production increased when maize is intercropped relative to sole maize. Cowpea DM production in sole cropping increased with increasing cowpea density and produced more DM compared to intercropped planting patterns. This indicated that competition for resources in intercropping reduced cowpea growth and also resulted in a decrease in growth rates. Legume growth suppression by maize in intercropping systems has been reported (Moririt et al. 2010). Maize-cowpea intercrops reduced density and weed biomass when compared to sole crops. This was similar with the findings of many researches [1].

In biomass, T2 dominated followed by T5 and T4, indicating interspecific competition scenarios in between maize and cowpea crops, which disagree with many investigators. However, maize seeds/cob directly linked with ear length that was shown in T4 similar to Moriri, et al. [11]. Mean grain yields for maize under intercropping were 51% less and for cowpea 12% less than in the respective sole crops Thorne et al. [12]. Furthermore, maize stover yield was 14% lower under intercropping, although the additional legume stover may more than compensate because of its higher nutritive value. T4 was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to maize seeds per cob, ear length, cowpea plant height and biomass and fair shade and frost effects. This combination of component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in this study.

Sole cowpea was significantly populated than other intercropping. T3 and T4 were likely to each other, but value wise, T3 was more populated than T4, indicating that with increase cowpea rows, there was an increase in cowpea population, getting freedom to compete alone for access to water, nutrients and sun light. Practically there was great over dominance of maize in three of the T5 replications, that cowpea plants were out of competition. T4 was significantly different from T5, though insignificant (P > 0.05) from T3 and T1 which, were likely to each other in cowpea plant height. The same trend was also observed in cowpea nodule number per plant, where T1 was exceptionally different from T5.

There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference in cowpea biomass among the intercropping systems, however, sole cowpea had scored significantly higher biomass followed by T4 with the least T3 (Figure 1). Cowpea plant root depth among the treatments were almost 81% similar between treatments (p>0.05) not significant but T4 was greatly significant (P > 0.05) than T5, T3 and T1 in descending order (Table 2). Intercropping had a consistent deleterious effect on cowpea performance, but any competitive effects were small. Cowpea plant height positively correlated with its biomass and number of cowpea plant/plot with nodule number, that indicated they do affect each other. But there was no correlation in between number of cowpea plants/plot with plant height and cowpea root depth. There was no correlation in between number of nodule with cowpea plant height, cowpea biomass and cowpea root depth.

Maize plants/plot was almost perfectly positively correlated with maize biomass (0.98) & maize ear number/ plant (0.96) that positively correlated with plant height but no correlation with ear length, grains/cob and grain weight. Maize leaf number was only positively correlated with plant height that indicated directly influenced to each other, no relation with ear length, grains/ cob, ear number/plant, grain weight and biomass. However, leaf number should be correlated with maize biomass, which correlated with plant height. Maize plant height also positively correlated with ear length, biomass and ear number/plant, but not correlated with grain weight and grains/cob indicating no influence. Maize biomass was also perfectly positively correlated with ear number/plant that directly affected. There was weak correlation in between biomass of maize & cowpea that there may not affect each other. Number of cowpea plants/ plot did not affected number of maize plants/ plot that do weakly correlated, but negatively affected maize grain weight. Nodules/ cowpea plant was negatively correlated with maize ear length which affected number maize grains/cob.

Thobatsi [9] reported that maize grain yield was significantly correlated to number of ears/plant and to 100 seeds weight. The planting pattern T5 has displayed lower cowpea plants performance in height and population that contradicts with Moriri, et al. [11] study who reported the 2rows M:4rows C pattern has the lowest cowpea dry matter, and taller cowpea plant height, all of these being attributed to reduce cowpea growth. In agreement with Moriri, et al. [11] study T4 pattern was the best combination of component crops in intercrop due to higher dry matter production. This combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops in the study. Thorne, et al. [12] reported maize grain lower (0.5ton/ha) than the bench marked production of the study area (0.7 ton/ha) and the actual intercropped low input farming trial as reported in (Table 3).

Indicate for the control sole cowpea (T1) and T2 for sole maize and hence there will no data for the alternate crop.

a,b,c, letters connected by different alphabet were significant difference ( within the same row);

Ns = not significant; SEM = Standard error mean; 1 ton= 1000Kg; 1hectar =10000m2

Effects Intercropping on Plant Chemical Composition

The levels of DM, IVDMD, NDF and ADF were higher in maize than in cowpea. However, lignin, CP and ash were higher in cowpea than maize.The interaction impact significantly (P<.05) affected in cowpea forage composition in many of the criteria such as DM, Ash, NDF, ADF, lignin and IVDMD in different angles. There was significant difference among the intercropping systems that stated in their descending value, as follows: NDF% (T3>T1>T5>T4); ADF % (T1>T5>T3>T4) and typical in CP% as well as lignin content % (T1> T5>T4>T3), while IVDMD% (T3>T4>T5>T1). There was marked (P <.05) effect of intercropping in cowpea forage DM% that T5 was higher while T1 was the least.

Cowpea Ash content was also significant (P < 0.05), and that of T4 has higher value while T3 was the least. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in between maize leaf and husk as well as maize grain and stem in DM% content. However, Maize leaves were significantly higher while maize stem was the least of all. Ash content was significantly (P < 0.05) different with higher value in maize leaf and least in grain which was actually higher in CP% (P < 0.05; 9.86) than leaf (6.57), husk (4.40) and stem (3.64). Interaction significantly (P < 0.01) affected NDF content that maize stem was higher and the least in grain. Maize husk was significantly over dominant in ADF content than stem, leaf and grain with their descending order. There was great significant in ADF content in the entire maize parts that maize husk has higher ADF than stem which exceeds leaf. Grain was the least in ADF content of all the maize parts. In general, low NDF values are desired because NDF increases as forages mature. Similar to the general fact maize stem was significantly (p<.05, 7.87%) higher in lignin than husk (6.62%), leaf (4.13%) and grain (1.23%). There is significant difference in IVDMD% content from maize grain to leaf, husk and stem, that grain was better digestible and absorbed in body tissues. Grain was the least in ADF; husk was the highest, indicating that it is poor in digestibility

The chemical composition of the research forage was in the range of Ethiopian forage nutritive value as stated by Duncan [13]. In turn, cowpea also presented CP values similar to those found in the literature. Dahmardeh [14] reported that maximum ADF (31.85%) was recorded by sowing maize alone while increasing the proportion of cowpea seeds to 50% in intercropping with maize, resulted in the lowest ADF (25.89%). Intercropping of cereal and legume can improve forage quality in terms of Ash. There was no difference in Phosphorus and IVDMD composition in maize stover and in maize grain of DM and CP, from Duncan [13] findings, higher ADL (6.2%) than 3.98% (Table 4).

Intercropping Effects on Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Contents

The soil parameters did not vary significantly (p>0.05) across treatments pre-sowing and post harvest. However, it is worth noting that intercropped plots did not receive fertilizer, and yet available nitrogen and phosphorus content was not significantly different. However, there was slight difference that higher N2 and P available pre-sowing, this indicated that total yield per unit area was improved through intercropping without visible impact on soil nutrient status. Available nitrogen was markedly lower and differences were less evident at the final sampling, probably, due to the increased use of the nutrients by the improved growth of the crops. There was significant Potassium (K) variation (p<.05) presowing and post harvest ppm. The result in NPK ranged in medium as to recommendations. Available potassium in the soil post harvest was diminished and higher in the maize leaves and husks.

This coincided with Lindqvist [15] that intercropping means sowing forage seeds usually legumes in a field where other crops are already growing, that has an advantage of producing additional animal feed from land that is already used, improves the feeding value of the crop stubble and improves soil fertility. The research result coincided with Thorne, et al. [12] who stated as stover fraction of the maize plant contains fewer nutrients than the grain. However, the removal of stover as fodder, construction material or fuel still represents a significant additional outflow of nutrients from the plot.

Economic Return of the Forage

Intercropping has improved economic return that T5 (1C:2M) followed by treatment 4 (1C:1M) intercropping were better to perform than treatment 2 (sole maize) and treatment 3 (2C:1M) cropping, be it for minimum competition or to resist frost damage. Cowpea had been crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. With this the mono-crop was the least in terms of 100 maize grain weight and grain yield, while treatment 5, 4 and 3 the real intercropping system intervention do better performed in their sequential order. Forage yield was the reverse that mono-crop (50.38 ton/ha) was significantly different followed by T5 (26.46 ton/ha), T4 (20.82 ton/ha) and lastly T3 (15.85 ton/ ha), indicating that higher proportion of maize outweigh, due to the nature of the crop to cover a large canopy area.

A partial budgeting model was applied for economic-evaluation of the biological data. Both crops forage yield and maize grain were valued at farm-gate prices (Table 5). Incremental benefit and incremental cost for each crop treatment was calculated. The resultant benefit cost ratio (BCR) was derived as the ratio of net incremental benefit to incremental cost. It is the absolute marginal rate of return (or loss, if negative) to incremental cost. BCR is the choice criterion for ranking the alternative maize-intercrops against respective control practices. A positive BCR implies that a particular crop treatment is economically superior (yields positive marginal return) to the control treatment or practice, and vice versa. The higher the positive BCR, the more economically superior the crop treatment and vis-a-vis. From a hectare of the planting pattern 257225.60 birr was considered as return (Table 5).

Biological Competition (Potential) Functions

SPI= (MS / CS x CI) + MI=MI= 3.39 ton/ha, where, CS x CI=0, since cowpea was perished. The Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) which gives an indication of the economic advantage of the intercropping system was calculated according to Ghosh [8] as follows:

MAI=257225.60(1.45-1)/1.45=79828.63 Ethiopian Birr

Economic values of grain and stover produced was estimated based on the average prevailing prices during the time period of the year from 3 main markets in the surroundings. Results indicated that the overall LER was 1.45 in the mixtures indicating a yield advantage over sole crops (Figure 2). Therefore, 45% more land should be used in sole cropping in order to obtain the same yield of intercropping, which indicates the superiority of the intercrops over pure stand in terms of the use of environmental resources for plant growth. LER > 1.0 has been reported in Eskandari [5], but LER<1 was reported in Thobatsi [9].

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study obviously suggested the possibility of exploiting short-term forage legume-cereal rotations where farmers could gain the benefits of forage legumes to grain production. If developed in to an intervention that can be implemented, such approach could be of an immense value to the animal and crop enterprises in mixed farming systems of highlands. In conclusion, it can be safely said that intercropping has shown its merit as a viable means of intensifying crop production, under unfertilized conditions and biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (frost) stresses, in the study area. The research disapproved that crop of the lowland; cowpea could perform well in highland, especially, with the global warming, increasing desertification and increasing temperature.

Maize and cowpea competed well with each other for light and nutrients in T4 mixed stand, producing a good total DM yield with moderate protein content. Cowpea deemed crop of the lowlands, but the research trial could be witness that it could be feasible not only for forage value but also for seed production. The research enabled to observe, frost damage versus intercropping that there was minimum impact on T4 of the intercropping for maize acted as nursing crop and provided protection against frost damage of the cowpea. Frost damage was more severe in the sole cowpea than the intercropped case. On the other hand, the establishment of climbing by this legume in relation to stage of maize development was vital in intercropping providing support [16].

Birds’ damage of the cob was higher in the sole maize for the denser population enabled to hide the birds. Frost cowpea damage was lesser in the T5 and T4 arrangements. The overall performance of the intercropping was better in the T4 arrangement which was the suitable planting pattern and has the potential to increase DM yield of maize production thereby also enhancing crop growth. In cowpea, sole cropping produced more DM than in intercropping systems [17-20]. From this study it was found that the T4 and T3 arrangements have the potential for enhancing cowpea and maize growth and also reducing weed growth this combination of the component crops proved to increase crop growth rates of both crops. Maize treatment 4 indicated to have better in CP% than other planting patterns [21].

1. Inorganic fertilizer seemed to be an indispensable component to maximize yield output, from interventions like intercropping

2. For highest yields, plant the targeted maize in 75 cm rows apart with in-row spacing of 30cm,

3. Favourable seasons for better grain and forage yields of both crops as well as chemical composition during scarcity of green feeds should be researched

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