Lupine Publishers | Does Nutrition Education Improved Complementary Feeding Practices in Ondo State, Nigeria? a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

This study showed the effect of nutrition education on complementary feeding practices among caregivers in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study was a cluster randomized controlled-trial design. The study participants were in two groups. One was intervention and the other one was the control group in a ratio of 1:1. The sample size was 282; the intervention group was 142 and the control group was 142. Intervention on complementary feeding was carried out inform of nutrition education among the caregivers in the intervention group and the control group received no intervention. The intervention group received four 4 lesson sessions per group. The sessions were based on continued breastfeeding, timely introduction of complementary feeding, minimum meal frequency, minimum dietary diversity, minimum acceptable diet, feeding with iron rich foods, responsive feeding and hygiene. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22.0. From Kaplan-Meier analysis, continued breastfeeding survival at age 11 months was 94.4% in the intervention group and it was 69.7% in the control group. Adjusted Relative Risk [ARR] was used to determine the effect of nutrition education on the intervention group and control group for variables such as Minimum Acceptable Diet [ARR: 3.13; CI: 2.53-5.16; P<0.001] at the end line. This study concluded that nutrition education based on complementary feeding guidelines improved the feeding practices of the caregivers. Therefore, the study recommends that Ministry of Health in Ondo State should encourage complementary feeding training for caregivers and CHEWs at the various Basic Health Centers in the State.

Abbreviation: ARR: Adjusted Relative Risk; BHC: Basic Health Centre; CFP: Complementary Feeding Practices; CHEW: Community Health Extension Workers; EBF: Exclusive Breastfeeding; FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization; HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus; ICF: International Classification of Functions, disability and health; IEC: Information Education Communication; IG: Intervention Group; IYCF: Infant and Young Child Feeding; LGA: Local Government Areas; MDD: Minimum Dietary Diversity; MMF: Minimum Meal Frequency; MAD: Minimum Acceptable Diet; NCP: National Population Commission [Nigeria]; NDHS: Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey; NGOs: Non-governmental organizations; NNHS: National Nutrition and Health Survey; OSHREC: Ondo State Health Research Ethics Committee; OSPHCDB: Ondo State Primary Health Care Development Board; SMART: Standardized Monitory and Assessment of Relief and Transition

Introduction

The UNICEF showed that globally 66% of children aged 6 to 8 months received semi-solid, solid or soft foods, with cases of nutrition deficiencies due to untimely introduction of complementary foods [1]. The timely introduction of complementary feeding among caregivers in sub-Sahara Africa was 71% and 68% for West and Central African countries while it was 67% for Nigeria [1]. Children receiving MAD was 11% in sub-Sahara Africa, 9% in West and Central African countries and 10% in Nigeria [1]. Infants feeding practices reports available in some other West African nations showed poor practices of MAD by caregivers in Ghana [13%] and in Benin Republic [9%] [1]. The report of the Nigerian National Demographic and Health Survey [2] indicated that only 11% of the breastfed infants received complementary foods from at least

four food groups. Globally, about 45% of infants less than 6 months of age were exclusively breastfed [EBF], with 42% in sub-Sahara Africa and 29% for West and Central African countries. In Nigeria, EBF rate is at 17%, which implies that 83% have had untimely introduction of complementary feeding [1]. The issues of poor infants feeding knowledge and practices among caregivers which result to poor nutrition status among the infants call for action due to the present level of malnutrition in Nigeria.

Standardized Monitory and Assessment of Relief and Transition reported that 21.1% of children less than five years of age in South West Nigeria, the Geo-political Zone of this study were stunted [3]. Malnutrition caused the death of 53% of children less than five years of age in Nigeria [4]. It also showed that 13% of the death could be averted if 90% of mothers in Nigeria practiced exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months. If the same mothers practiced timely introduction of complementary feeding, a further 6% of the death rate could be prevented [5]. Inadequacy in complementary feeding during infancy and childhood has been demonstrated by researchers as a factor that leads to malnutrition, resulting in higher mortality and morbidity rate among the children [6]. In Nigeria, poor infants feeding practices rate is high. Apart from lack of adequate complementary feed being provided to the infants, force-feeding practices rather than responsive feeding is reported among 83.8% respondents in Enugu, Nigeria [7]. Only 10% of infants received minimum acceptable diet in the country [1]. The report of National Demographic and Health Survey showed that only 17.6% of infants in the South West Geo-Political Zone received minimum adequate diet [2].

Objectives

a) To implement a nutrition education program using World Health Organization guidelines on complementary feeding for caregivers in Ondo State, based on complementary feeding practices, knowledge and attitudes.

b) Establish the effects of nutrition education on complementary feeding, knowledge, attitudes and practices among caregivers in Ondo State.

Materials and Methods

Research Design

This was a cluster-randomized controlled trial. A randomized controlled trial reduces bias in interventional studies by controlling for known and unknown confounders. It also provides evidence of a causal-effect relationship between the intervention and the outcomes [8,9]. The Basic Health Centres were randomized and not the caregivers to enhance participation by caregivers, by reducing loss to follow-up.

The study had two phases: the needs assessment phase and the intervention phase.

Sample Size

Sample size was determined using [10] for continuous assessment. A total of 290 caregivers were achieved. During the study 6 caregivers were lost to follow-up which resulted to 284 caregivers that completed the study. They were distributed as follows; This resulted into 70 caregivers in the first Basic Health Center for intervention group, 72 in the second BHC for intervention group, 69 in the first BHC for control group and 73 in the second BHC at the end of the study depending on eligibility criteria and willingness of the caregivers to participate in the different communities.

Sampling Techniques

Multi-stage sampling method was adopted for this study. Purposive sampling method was used for the selection of Ondo North Senatorial District out of the three Senatorial Districts in the State. Owo Local Government Area [LGA] due to existing literature [11]. Simple random sampling method was used for the selection of the 4 Basic Health Centres [BHC] out of ten [10] BHCs in the LGA. Randomization was then conducted to assign the BHCs into intervention groups and control group by a biostatistician using MS EXEL at a ratio of 1:1, with each study group having two BHCs. Caregivers were allocated to study group based on the BHCs they attend for post-natal care.

The recruitment of study participants into the study

The study participants were recruited by the researcher, assisted by the Community Health Extension Workers [CHEWs]. The researcher together with the CHEWs in the selected BHCs recruited and registered eligible participants [caregivers with infants] into the study at the weekly routine meetings in the BHCs. Daily recruitment was carried out when the caregivers visited the health centres for routine meetings for immunization, appointments and check-ups. Eligible caregivers were recruited in 13, 11 and 10 in numbers in each Basic Health Centres, until the required sample size was achieved. The screening was conducted by the researcher and the Community Health Extension Workers (Figures 1 & 2).

The Training

Caregivers in the control group were selected from 2 BHCs and did not receive any intervention from the research team. Meanwhile, the caregivers in the intervention group which were also selected from 2 BHCs received the complementary feeding nutrition education from the research team. The education session began with creating rapport between the researcher [assisted by CHEWs in the research group] and the participants. The training was conducted in the local Yoruba language for better understanding. The content of the nutrition education on complementary feeding was based on the guidelines [12] as well as the knowledge, attitude and practices gaps identified during the need’s assessment. The caregivers received training on continued breastfeeding, dietary diversity, meal frequency, responsive feeding techniques, meal planning for infants, infants’ meal planning during illness and recovery and hygiene [water treatment]. This training was carried out in three consecutive weekends as the caregivers were recruited per group in the respective health centers weekly. After the recruitment and training, the caregivers were followed up during the program. The phone numbers of the caregivers and the CHEW in that zone, where the caregivers resided were also written down by the researchers in case of questions or if need arises to attend to some unclear area of the training pertaining to the study. Two days to and on the eve of visitation day, the enumerator allocated to the area would call to remind the caregivers about the visitation day.

Research Instruments

WHO [2010a] IYCF indicators [13]

WHO [2010b] 24hr. dietary recall on complementary feeding practices [14]

WHO [2004] Complementary feeding guidelines [12] Data analysis

Pilot study was carried out. During the pilot study, training was conducted for caregivers in the intervention group and there was standardization of data collection procedures. Each questionnaire was administered twice on the same group of participants at an interval of two days. A correlation co-efficient of more than 0.7 was considered adequate [Mukaka, 2012]. They are as follows:

a) Baseline questionnaire for the caregivers: 0.89[0.82- 0.92].

b) Second questionnaire for all the caregivers: 0.77[0.61- 0.84].

c) Third questionnaire for all the caregivers: 0.88[0.71- 0.91].

Complementary feeding practices were determined based on the [13] IYCF indicators. Early initiation of breastfeeding was determined thus; proportion of infants who were put to breast within one hour of birth; for exclusive breastfeeding; [proportion of infants 0-5 months who were fed exclusively with breast milk]. For continued breastfeeding, [proportion of infants fed with breast milk in the previous day], For meal frequency [a frequency of 2 times for ages 6-8 months and 3 times for 9-11 months was considered adequate and milk feeding frequency for non-breastfed infants [proportion of infants 6-11 months who received at least 2 milk feedings during the previous day] was considered adequate]. For dietary diversity, a daily intake of 4 or more out of 7 food groups was considered adequate [15]. For consumption of iron rich and iron fortified foods, proportion of infants who received iron rich food or iron fortified food that is designed for infants or that is fortified at home. For responsive feeding, caregivers were expected to encourage the infant to eat the food served. Also, for hygiene, treatment of water by boiling water to boiling point and allow it to cool in a clean container was the acceptable practice.

Feeding practices was determined using the feeding practices variable for the questionnaire according to 24hr. dietary recall on complementary feeding practices [14]. The caregivers that answered yes to right practices was awarded 1 while the caregivers that answered no to right complementary feeding practices was awarded 0. The proportion of each variable was subjected to regression analysis. In addition, adjustment/ controlling for the covariates such as caregivers age and parity was done during the analysis to cater for the design effect because it was the BHCs that were randomized into study groups and not the caregivers.

Logistical and ethical considerations

Ethical clearance was obtained from Ondo State Health Research Ethics Committee [OSHREC]. Letter of introduction to the coordinator of Owo LGA, BHCs was obtained from Ondo State Primary Health Care Development Board [OSPHCDB], Nigeria.

Results

The influence of nutrition education on complementary feeding practices of the caregivers

A regression analysis using Adjusted Relative Risk was carried out to determine the effect of the nutrition education on the feeding practices of the caregivers. The caregivers in the intervention group were 8 times more likely to feed the infant with minimum meal frequency than the caregivers in the control group at the midline [ARR: 8.13; CI: 3.12-21.19; p<0.001] and 3.4 times at the end line [ARR: 3.41; CI: 2.36-5.22; p<0.001]. The result showed that caregivers in the intervention group were 7 times more likely to feed their infants with diversified diet in terms of the complementary foods at midline [ARR: 7.89; CI: [4.47-13.92; p<0.001] and 6.7 times at the end line [ARR: 6.66; CI: 4.43-8.84; p p<0.001]. Feeding the infants with minimum acceptable diet was 6.4 times more likely among the caregivers in the intervention group [ARR: 6.42; CI: 2.42-18.33; p<0.001] at the midline and 3 times more likely at the end line [ARR: 3.13; CI: 2.53-5.16; p<0.001] compared to the control group. This shows that the infants in the intervention group were more like to meet the minimum acceptable diet requirement compared to the infants in the control group, both at the midline and at the end line of the study.

Responsive feeding was more likely to be practiced among the caregivers in the intervention group than the caregivers in the control group [ARR: 2.12; CI: 1.72-2.65; p<0.001] at the midline and 6 times more likely at the end line [ARR: 6.60; CI: 4.43-8.84; p<0.001]. The responsive feeding practices were also established by caregivers during the FGDs. This was what a caregiver from the intervention group had to say; I did not believe that the different ways of encouraging the infants to accept complementary food could be achievable because of my experience with my first daughter, but this training helped me. Since the time we were taught on responsive feeding which was demonstrated to us in the health centre, I practiced responsive feeding on my infant and it was achievable.” [CAREGIVER3, FGD2 2017] (Table 1).

Continued breastfeeding survival analysis

Adjusted Relative Risk analysis showed that 30% of the caregivers in the control group were less likely to continue breastfeeding, compared to the intervention group at the end line [ ARR 0.30; CI: 0.16-0.56; p<0.001]. Additionally, survival analysis was performed on the continued breastfeeding practices of the caregivers in both groups to determine the probability of continued breastfeeding along with complementary feeding among the caregivers. From Kaplan-meire analysis, 69.7% of the caregivers in the control group continued with breastfeeding at age 11 months, compared to 94.4% of the caregivers in the intervention group [p<0.001].

Discussion

Despite research-based evidence on association of adequate complementary feeding practices and child survival. In Nigeria, 70% of caregivers did not have good adequate complementary feeding practices [16,17]. Only 17.5% of Nigerian infants received minimum acceptable diet during complementary feeding by the caregivers [18]. In South western Nigeria, the geopolitical zone where this study was carried out, only 17.8% of infants received minimum acceptable diet [MAD] while in Ondo State, only 11.4% received MAD [2]. This study showed the effect of nutrition education which improved the caregivers’ complementary feeding practices. Prior to the commencement of complementary feeding practices at the baseline, there was no significant difference in the complementary feeding practices in the two groups. Some of the caregivers that introduced complementary feeding earlier than six months were among caregivers that participated in this study. Whether they introduced complementary feeding earlier or at appropriate time there was a significant improvement in the feeding practices among the caregivers that received nutrition education (Figure 3 & 4).

Force feeding ways of introducing complementary feeding among the caregivers in the control group showed poor feeding practices of the caregivers. There was lack of knowledge on responsive feeding which made the caregivers in the control group lack confidence to feed the infants. This resulted to force feeding as determined in this study, which could affect the timely introduction of the complementary feeding practices. Majority of the caregivers in the control group started force feeding due to the refusal of the complementary foods by the infants. The issue of early intolerance of the complementary foods by the infants was handled during the nutrition education using different techniques of responsive feeding through posters and food demonstrations. This study is in line with guiding principle of complementary feeding stated by the National Policy on infant and young child feeding in Nigeria [19], which declared that responsive feeding using psycho-social care should be adopted by mothers in Nigeria. To foster a reciprocal relationship between the parent or caregiver and the child, and thus practicing responsive feeding, was hypothesized to be beneficial to both parties [20]. Accelerated rate of death and pneumonia as a result of force feeding was a concern [21]. They further stated that force feeding leads to infections, collapsed lungs, digestive and pancreatic problems. Acceptable ways of introducing complementary feeding that will be acceptable by the infants and will not frustrate the effort of the caregivers which could lead to introduction of force feeding, was learnt by the caregivers in the intervention group during the nutrition education on complementary feeding. Lack of responsive feeding practices caused growth flattering among the infants in low- and middle-income countries [22].

Therefore, responsive feeding techniques should be among the package for complementary feeding guidelines. To corroborate the effectiveness of nutrition education on responsive feeding, it was revealed that there was an improvement in the complementary feeding practices of caregivers in the intervention group as the caregivers in Kosova were able to see more reasons to have patience and encourage the infants to eat complementary foods [23]. Consumption of iron rich foods was high among the infants in both groups and this agrees with the reports on consumption of iron rich foods in South-West Nigeria by [19]. The report revealed that 60.1% of infants in this geo-political zone consumed iron rich foods. Despite the high rate of consumption of iron rich foods in both groups, there was a wide margin of iron rich foods intake between the infants in the intervention group and control group in the present study. Increase in the intake of iron rich foods was due to the nutrition education that the caregivers in the intervention group received. Intakes of iron were lower by 16% among infants of 6-12 months than children of 13-36 months in an observational study in Brazilian Well Child Clinic [24]. There was an association between complementary foods and haemoglobin concentration among Indian infants [25]. The author stated that there was a positive association between the infants’ haemoglobin concentration and fortified baby foods, breast milk and infant formula as well as fruits and vegetables to a lesser extent on the contrary to porridge or gruel. Iron deficiency [ID] is the most common micronutrient deficiency world-wide and young children are the special risk group because their rapid growth leads to high iron requirements [26].

Early initiation of complementary food using semi-solid, solid/ soft food consistency and food diversification was improved among the caregivers in the intervention group. The knowledge acquired during the nutrition education was put into practice during the period of complementary feeding before the first birthday of the infants [age 12 months]. It was recommended that nutrition education is needed in West African countries to improve the knowledge of caregivers on complementary foods consistency as majority of mothers in West African countries feed the infants with thin gruel during complementary feeding [27]. Poor timing of initiation of complementary feeding led to 70% malnutrition among infants in Konaseema region of India therefore recommended nutrition intervention on complementary feeding [28]. Untimely initiation of complementary feeding was prevalent among caregivers in North eastern part of Ethiopia and that nutrition education on timely introduction of complementary feeding could improve the practices among mothers [29]. The infants in the intervention group had higher minimum meal frequency rates than the infants in the control group. This was similar to the findings which revealed that meal frequency increased according to the age of children study in South eastern of Ethiopia [30]. The increase in the percentage of the infants who were fed with minimum meal frequency was higher in the intervention group than the control group due to the effect of the nutrition education on the intervention group. This is in line with the findings which showed that there was an increase in meal frequency of infants whose mothers were in intervention group than the infants whose mothers were in the control group in Ethiopia [31]. The intervention group caregivers increased the meal frequency during illness of the infants during the study compared to the caregivers in the control group. Children poor appetite induced by illness can contribute to perpetuate vicious cycle of infectious diseases [32].

Dietary diversity during complementary feeding was achieved among the caregivers in the intervention earlier at midline of the study than the caregivers in the control group. The effect of the knowledge of the caregivers in the intervention group was noticeable in the minimum dietary diversity achieved during the feeding practices. There was higher number of infants who were fed on minimum dietary diversity in the intervention group than the control group. This study was in line with the study which showed significant difference between dietary diversity, meal frequency and feeding infants with iron containing foods among caregivers the intervention group and those in the control group in Uganda [33]. However, literature on intervention to improve the feeding practices of caregivers prior the commencement of the complementary feeding practices, and at different age of the infants’ months was limited. Nutrition education improved dietary diversity among caregivers of infants between 6-23 months in Malawi [34]. Also, UNICEF showed that nutrition education is a catalyst for improving dietary diversity among caregivers in Lilongwe, Malawi [35]. Treatment of drinking water by the caregivers showed that the caregivers in the intervention group practiced good hygiene as compared to the caregivers in the control group. This could be the effect of the nutrition education received by the intervention group. The underlying determinants of undernutrition include food insecurity, inappropriate care practices, poor access to health care, and an unhealthy environment, including access to portable water, sanitation, and hygiene [36] in [37]. In 2018 UNICEF declared that 88% of diarrhea deaths were due to lack of access to safe drinking water, poor sanitation and hygiene [38]. World Health Organization stated that nutrition outcome could be improved with better intervention on water, sanitation and hygiene [39].

The improvement in complementary feeding practices in the intervention group could be linked to the knowledge acquired during nutrition education. The intended feeding practices as noted at the baseline study as well as during FGDs and KIIs was to feed the infants with thin consistency. However, nutrition education was able to change the understanding of the caregivers on food consistency which in turn improved the feeding practices among the caregivers in the intervention group. Several studies have proved the need for nutrition education to improve complementary feeding practices of caregivers. Nutrition education was recommended as a viable tool to improve complementary feeding practices among mothers in Cross River State, Nigeria [18]. Nutrition education on complementary feeding is needed by caregivers in Sagamu, Nigeria to improve the infant feeding practices among mothers [40]. It was 30% of infants in Nigeria were adequately fed and therefore recommended nutrition education for the improvement of caregivers feeding practices [41].

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Lupine Publishers | Net Revenue Determination of Beans Marketers in Imo State, Nigeria

 Lupine publishers |  Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition\

Abstract

The study is on net revenue determination of beans marketers in Imo state, Nigeria. Specifically, it examines the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents, determines the factors influencing the selling price and marketing margin of beans and identifies the marketing constraint for beans in the study area. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select eighteen (18) wholesalers and forty-eight (48) retailers. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression models were used to analyze the data collected. Results showed that majority of the beans traders were males, within the age range of 41-50 years, well educated, have high marketing experience, married and belong to trade/cooperative association. The regression analysis shows that the purchase price of beans favored the selling price of wholesale and retail marketing however it has negative effect on variables such on their marketing margins and seasonality. The constraints to beans marketing in the study area are problem of insurgency (91.94%), high transportation cost (95.16%) and high purchase price (87.10%).The results suggest that policies that could impact on transportation and insurgencies in the north should be adopted to ameliorate the challenges of Bean marketers.

Keywords: Net Revenue; Determination; Beans (Cowpea); Marketers; Nigeria

JEL Classification: D41, L10, Q13

Introduction

Beans are third most popular food after rice and cassava in Nigeria, grown throughout sub-Saharan Africa commonly in the dry savanna regions of West Africa. A warm climate and drought tolerant crop grown throughout the tropics particularly in the semi-arid and low rainfall regions [1], it is a pulse with high protein content, affordable and also a staple food crop. Its forage is used in animal feed especially during dry season when animal feed is scarce and demand for feed is very high. Beans play a key role in the diet of rural and urban dwellers especially the poor and vulnerable group as an affordable source of protein and a substitute for animal protein. This is in line with Ayinde and Adejobi [2], who reported that beans provide the most affordable protein supplement to the urban and rural poor. This is as a result of its ability to serve in different forms such as Moimoi, Akara (bean cake) etc. it can also be cooked alongside with other cereals and tubers such as rice, maize, yam, plantain etc. which is very affordable and helps to reduce high rate of starchy food consumption in the developing countries. In Nigeria Beans production is appreciating, having its major producing states in the north. Singh et al. [3] as reported by [4] revealed that Nigeria is the major producer and consumer of beans in the world with production estimate of 1.7million metric tons from about 4million hectares. Futuless et al. [5] also reported that about 14million hectares are under beans cultivation with about 5million of the total being in Nigeria. In 2013 it was revealed that Nigeria produces an average of 2.5 million metric tons of beans [6]. The high production rate of beans in Nigeria can be attributed to high population growth, poverty and the demand for low-cost food. According to Nathan et al. [7] the economic importance of beans in Nigeria is on the increase particularly in the southern states where its demand is increasingly high due to population growth. This is as a result of its aptitude in boosting their protein intake thereby covering the gap created by insufficient supply of animal protein in the diets of many households [8]. However, beans production in Nigeria has declined in the past few years as a result of insurgency in the northern region of the country which is the main producer of beans, it is reported that most of the beans consumed in Nigeria is imported from neighboring countries such as Niger republic and Burkina Faso (African agricultural technology foundation [9]. Beans have emerged with the potentiality of bridging the protein-carbohydrate imbalance prevailing in Nigeria through its wide range of acceptability and its nutritional value which aims towards sustainability and food and nutrition security Thus, improving the revenue generation of both the producers and the marketers. However, Gieri et al. [4] reported that some of the major problems associated with beans production and marketing is inadequate capital, pest and disease, poor logistics marketing outlets and management difficulties which have adverse effect on their net revenue [10]. Also, according to Bakoji [11] farmers socioeconomic factors such as farm size, level of education, years of farming experience, institutional and technological factors influence their net revenue on beans production and marketing activities [12,13]. Despite this limitations on beans production, there is a rapid population growth with increasing demand for staple food crops therefore there is a need to make advancements in coping with the challenges surrounding beans production and marketing in order to meet the demand for food to achieve food sufficiency and eradicate malnutrition in the study area. This study aims to examine net revenue determination of beans marketers in Imo state, Nigeria. Specifically; it intends to achieve the following

a) Examine the socioeconomic characteristics of beans marketers

b) Determine the factors influencing the net revenue of beans marketers in the study area.

c) Identify the marketing constraints for beans marketers in the study area.

Methodology

This study was conducted in Imo State. The state lies in the south east geopolitical zone of Nigeria with Owerri as its capital and largest city. The State also lies within latitudes 40451N and 70151N, and longitude 60501E and 70251E with an area of around 5,100sq.km. Imo State is composed of three Agricultural zones, namely; Owerri, Okigwe and Orlu and it is subdivided into 27 Local Government Areas (LGAs). The State has a total population of 3,934,899 persons with a population density that varies from 230 persons per square kilometer in the densely populated areas [14]. Agriculture is assumed to be one of the major sources of income of most occupants of the area though they are largely civil servants. Purposive and random sampling techniques were used in selecting the respondents. A main market from the three agricultural zones namely owerri, okigwe and orlu was purposively selected due to high concentration of marketing activities in these markets. One rural local government area was randomly selected from each of the three agricultural zones. A major market was selected from the three rural LGAs. Thus, three urban and three rural markets making a total of six markets were randomly selected for the study. Six beans wholesalers and six retailers were selected from the three urban markets and from the rural market; ten beans retailers were randomly selected. This gives 18 wholesalers and 48 retailers (18 urban and 30 rural retailers) and a total of 66 respondents for the study. Data for this study were collected from primary source and was obtained using a well-structured questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multiple regression techniques.

Results and Conclusion

Source: Field survey data, 2019

The result of the socioeconomics of beans marketers as shown in the Table 1 above discloses that majority of beans marketers were male (Tables 2 & 3). This points to the fact that it is a strenuous business, which often requires activities such loading and off-loading, movement of product from the long distance of production to areas of sale may be a challenge to the female counterparts. It further shows that the marketers have a mean age of 46 which indicates that majority of them are active and energetic enough to carry out the work associated with transferring beans from one place to another. The educational attainment of the marketers shows that majority of the marketers spent 13-18 years in school, which implies that the marketers has gained a high level of education and are innovative enough to maximize the limited resources and generate profit. The table further highlights that majority of the bean’s marketers have marketing experience range from 21-30 years, this implies that the marketers have been in the marketing business for a reasonable number of years and have acquired experience and skills needed to cope with the complexities of marketing. Majority of the marketers were married and belongs to trade/cooperative association, this implies that they may have availability of labor and access to credit, extension/business strategist which will boost their marketing activities. The estimated functions were evaluated in terms of the statistical significance and coefficient of magnitude. Using the coefficient of multiple determinations (R~) and (F) value coefficient which defines the magnitude of t-values and based on a priori expectation. The regression result of factors influencing wholesaler's selling price of Beans as presented. Based on these statistical and economic criteria, the Linear functional form was selected as the lead equation since it has the highest significant of coefficient of R at 0.7737 indicated by F-value of 5.8594.

***Sig@ 1%; **sig@ 5%, *sig@ 10%, + Lead equation. Source: Computed Results 2019

This implies that 77.37% variability in selling price was explained by the variables considered in the model, while the remaining 22.63% was unexplained which could be attributed to errors and omitted variables. The F-statistics value of 5.8594 was significant which implies that the model is the best fit for the expression and an indication of overall significance of the regression. Out of the seven independent variables, three variables namely purchase price (X¹), marketing cost (X²) and seasonality (X³) were statistically significant at 5% level of probability. The regression result of the factors influencing the retailer's selling price for beans in the Table 3 above shows the four functional forms, and based on the values of R~, F-statistics and the a priori expectation, the exponential function was chosen as the lead equation as it has the highest significant R2 as indicated by F-statistics (9.6281). Results show that the coefficient of multiple determinations (R~) was 0.6647.This implies that 68.78% of the variability in retailer's selling price was explained by the exogenous variables included in the model while the remaining 33.53% was unexplained variables attributed to omitted variables captured by the error term. The F-statistics value of 5.8594 (p<0.00) was significant implied the model is best fit for the expression and an indication of overall significance of the regression. Results show that the purchase price (X¹), number of buyers (X⁴) and market location (7) were statistically significant at 5% respectively. This implies that purchase price, number of buyers and market location significantly affects the retailers selling price of beans.

***sig at 1%; ** sig at 5%, * sig at 10% + Lead Equation Source: Computed Results, 2019

Factors Influencing the Marketing Margins for Beans

Table 4 shows the regression result of the factors influencing the wholesaler's marketing margins for beans in the study area. It shows the four functional forms, and based on the values of R~, l: -statistics and the a priori expectation, the double log function was chosen as the lead equation. Results showed that the coefficient of multiple determinations (R~) was 0.7441. This implies that 74.41% of the variability in wholesaler's marketing margins was explained by the independent variables included in the regression model, while the remaining 25.59% was unexplained due to omitted variables in the model as captured by the errors term of the regression model. The F-statistics value of 2.6166 (p<0.01) was significant implied the model is best fit for the expression and an indication of overall significance of the regression. Results show that the purchase price (X¹), transportation cost (X³), handling cost (X⁵) and seasonality (X¹⁰) were statistically significant at 5% which implies that the marketing margin of the beans marketers are greatly influenced by the impact of purchase price, transportation cost, handling cost and seasonality nature of beans. The above results in Table 5 shows the regression result of the factors influencing the retailer's marketing margins for beans in the study area. It shows the four functional forms and based on the values of R and F-statistics the linear function was chosen as the lead equation. Results showed that the coefficient of multiple determinations (R) was 0.8401.

*** Significant at 1%; ** significant at 5%, ^significant at 10% + Lead equation Source: Computed Results, 2019.

***significant at 1%; ** significant at 5%, *significant at 10% + = Lead equation Source: Computed Results, 2019.

Results of the Factor Influencing Retailer’s Marketing Margins for Beans

This implies that 84.01% of the variability in retailer's marketing margins was explained by the included variables in the model, while the remaining 15.99% was unexplained and could be attributed to omitted variables in the regression which are captured as error term. The F-statistics value of 1.6282 (p<0.00) was significant implied the model is best fit for the expression and an indication of overall significance of the regression results show that the (X¹), (X⁷), (X⁸) and (X⁹) were significant at 5% which means that purchase price, market charges, level of education and household size have tremendous impact on the retailers marketing margins. Results in Table 6, indicates that the insurgencies in the northern part of country, high transportation cost to and from the major purchase sources and high purchase price are the constraints militating against efficient marketing of beans in the area. The high prices of beans may be due the unrest experienced from point of production. High price could equally be as resulting in low yields and consequently scarcity. NPC [15] linked the high prices to the sale of beans to urban markets thus decreasing supply in source markets, and hence results in high prices. Abate also confirmed that prices for beans are generally higher in a season especially in the months between January and April [16,17].

*Major constraints. Source: Field Survey Data, 2019.

Conclusion

The study shows that the beans marketers were mostly men with majority on wholesaling than in retailing, still in their youthful age and are energetic to carry out their marketing activities efficiently. Purchase price of beans favored the selling price of wholesalers and retail marketing however; it is a major disincentive to their marketing margins and marketing costs particularly during bumper period when the selling price is lower than purchase price. Seasonality of beans has a negative effect on wholesalers selling price and marketing margins during harvest periods when sellers’ price is at the lowest and distinctive to wholesale marketing. High marketing charges and handling costs have negative impact on the marketing margins on both traders. Problem of insurgencies from the north is the major constraint faced by beans marketers in the study area

https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/net-revenue-determination-of-beans-marketers-in-imo-state-nigeria.ID.000131.php

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Lupine Publishers | Structural Mapping of Beans (Cowpea) Marketers in Imo State, Nigeria

 

Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

The study is on structural Mapping of beans (cowpea) marketers in Imo state, Nigeria. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select twenty- four (24) wholesalers and forty-two (42) retailers. Descriptive statistics, marketing margin analytical technique and Gini coefficient analytical technique were used to analyze the data collected. Results and Conclusion showed that majority of the beans traders were males, within the age range of 31-40 years, literate, married and have acquired marketing experience which ranges from 11-20 years. Beans’ marketing in the study area has two main channels, the major channel starts with the producers (beans farmer) to rural assembler, wholesalers, retailers and final consumer. The Gini coefficients for wholesalers and retailers were 0.663 and 0.656 respectively indicating inequality in the distribution of the traders. This also shows that the market structure for beans in the study area is imperfectly competitive.

Keywords: Structural; Organization; Beans (Cowpea); Marketers; Imo State

Introduction

Agriculture has been the backbone in the growth and development of many developing countries. It is a major sub-sector and has emerged to have a great importance in the development of economic sector of many developing countries including Nigeria. From the economic standpoint, according to [1] agricultural sub-sector has contributed profusely, constituting about 56.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) with 23% from crop production, employing about 70% labour force and providing over 80% of the food consumed in the country. The expansion of agriculture in Nigeria has greatly resulted to an increasing employment rate, foreign exchange rate and food security thereby elevating the standard of living of the populace [2]. Similarly, [3] also reported agriculture as a key driver to national survival, unemployment, food and foreign exchange earnings. However, the contribution of agriculture to Nigeria economy declined to 36.2% in [2] which was due to problem of flooding and other weather-related problems which adversely affected crop production and drastically brought down agricultural productivity in many part of the country [1,4]As a result, it is essential to resuscitate and heighten agricultural production in Nigeria specifically in the area of crop production to meet the appreciating demand for grains and leguminous crops and further ensure continual food supply to the growing population especially in the rural areas where income generation and livelihood heavily depend on agriculture, hence the ultimate goal of food security and sustainability can be attained. Beans (vigna unguiculata) are grains that are rich in protein source, consumed around the globe.it is a leguminous plant protein crop with protein content of 23%, rich in vitamins and minerals. According to [5] beans were introduced in the world mainly in the west and central Africa through slave trade and grow in tropical and sub-tropical area of the world [6]. It is cultivated in Nigeria mainly from its seed; [7] also reported that beans are essential staple food crop produced mainly for domestic consumption and animal feed. However; its role cannot be overemphasized. It is a cover crop commonly known for its capacity of improving and repairing soil fertility by converting atmospheric nitrogen through its root nodules to soil nitrogen which is in turn used up by plants.

This makes it able to strive well in poor and deteriorated soil. It is also intercropped with other crops such as maize, millet, sorghum in order to improve their yield. According to Muimui beans play a very important role in improving the livelihood of rural farmers by providing a source of income adding to its role to food and nutrition security. Market structure demonstrate the interrelated behavior of a market, such as the number and related strength of buyers and sellers, degree of freedom in determining the price, level and forms of competition, extent of product differentiation and ease of entry into and exit from market. The fundamental component of the structure conduct and performance (SCP) model described by [8] is the market structure. [9] also defined market structure as those features of the organization which seems to impact strategically the nature of competition and pricing within the market. [10] identified those factors considered to be of importance in determining the market structure of a product as the degree of product differentiation, the ease of entry and exit of the buyers and sellers into and out of the market and the status of knowledge about cost, price and market conditions among the participants in the market. The structure a market exhibits can be used to classify it based on the types of market structure that exist which includes perfect competition, monopolistic, oligopolistic and pure monopoly. Nigeria is currently the largest producers of beans in the world, yet, the demand for beans in Nigeria is running a domestic supply deficit of 518400 metric tons per year [11]. Moreover, expansion in beans production and marketing is hindered by inadequate research, poor information and record keeping which encourages weak production and distribution of beans in Nigeria. This is in line with [12] who reveals that Farmers usually accept lower prices for their products because of inadequate market information and capital to expand their beans production and access major markets for their produce. Beans marketing have a plethora of issues surrounding its prevalence, these necessitate the various research questions aimed to proffer solutions that can increase the organization of structure of beans marketing in Imo state Nigeria; the following research questions guided the study

a) What are the socioeconomic characteristics of beans marketers in Imo state?

b) What is the concentration of beans wholesalers and retailers in the study area?

c) What is the mapping of beans marketing channels in the study area? Therefore, this study aims at examining the structural mapping of beans marketers in the study area with the following specific objectives

a) Examine the socioeconomic characteristics of beans marketers in the study area.

b) Assess the organization of beans marketing in the study area through the channels

c) Ascertain the structural identity of beans marketing through the seller concentration.

Material and Methods

The study was conducted in Imo state, the state is situated in the South Eastern part of Nigeria. The state is divided into three agricultural zones which are Okigwe, Orlu and Owerri and consists of twenty-seven (27) local government areas [13] It lies within the latitude 40451N and 70151N and longitude 60501E and 70 251E with land area of about 5,100km2 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2014). It is bordered by Abia state on the East, River Niger and Delta state on the West, by Anambra State to the North and Rivers State to the South. It has an annual rainfall varying from 1,500mm to 2,200mm, an average annual temperature above 20oC and an annual relative humidity of 75% with humidity reaching 90% in rainy season. The estimated population is 4.8 million and the population density varies from 230-1,400 per square kilometer. The main occupation in Imo state is trading, civil service and agriculture [13]. The zonal main market was purposively selected due to relative high concentration of marketing activities and beans trade in these markets. These include owerri main market, orlu main market and okigwe main market.

From each zone, one rural LGA was randomly selected. In each of the rural LGAs, a major market was selected for the study, making it three (3) urban and three (3) rural markets to arrive at a total of six (6) markets. In each of the urban markets 6 beans wholesalers and 6 beans retailers were randomly selected. This gives 24 wholesalers and 24 retailers from the urban markets. From the rural markets, 6 retailers were randomly selected, giving 18 retailers on the whole. Therefore, this research was carried out using 24 wholesalers and 42 retailers (24 urban and 18 rural retailers) to give a total of 66 respondents for the study. Primary data was used for the study and it was obtained through the use of a structured questionnaire which was administered and retrieved from to 62 respondents. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistic, marketing margin analytical technique and Gini analytical technique. Gini coefficient is used to determine the market concentration of sellers in the market. It can be computed using the formula: G.C = 1 -ΣXY

Where, G = Gini coefficient

X = Percentage share of each class of seller.

Y = Cumulative percentage of the sales

The Gini coefficient ranges from zero to one. A perfect equality in concentration (low) of sellers is expected if Gini coefficient tends toward zero, while perfect inequality in concentration (high) of sellers is expected, if Gini coefficient tends towards one. This was also used by [1].

Results and Conclusion

The result of socioeconomic characteristics presented in Table 1 above reveal that majority (72%) of the pooled beans traders were males, in the wholesaler category, 75% of the traders were male while 71% of the retailers were male and falls within the age range of 31-40 years which are referred to as economically active and usually self-motivated and innovative. The male involvement in beans marketing implies that beans marketing is vigorous and impose a lot of risks such as risk of travelling a long distance to the northern part in search of beans and as such may defer female participation in wholesale marketing considering their feminine nature and their significant role in home-keeping and child care. The response on their level of educational attainment shows that majority (67%) of the wholesaler, (60%) of the retailers and (62%) of the pooled beans traders has spent 7-12 years in school with the mean years of 12years and 11 years for wholesalers and retailers respectively. This implies that most of the bean’s traders are literate and are enlightened and can easily adopt innovative ideas that will enhance their performance and efficiency in carrying out their marketing activities. This is in line with the opinion of [14] that an educated marketer is in a better position for more investments and rational decisions for increased income than an uneducated one. The results in Table1 also revealed marketing experience of the beans marketers, it was indicated that about 42% of the wholesalers, 48% of the retailers and 45% of the pooled traders had been in beans marketing. The mean marketing experience was 8years and 9 years for wholesalers and retailers respectively. This implies that beans marketers have gained a rational knowledge in marketing which will enable them to manage their business more effectively while maximizing profit. The table showed that majority of the bean’s marketers were married, this could be attributed to the fact that married trader have more responsibility to cater for and also have free supply of family labor. The traders in the study area were found to belong to their trade/co-operative association, essence being to help them pool their resources together and purchase in bulk and also gain access to credit facilities to enable them to expand their businesses.

Marketing Channels for Beans

(Figure 1) Marketing Channels for Beans Marketing in the study area Pp= Purchase price, Sp= Selling Price, TMC = Total Marketing Cost, GM= Gross Margin, NM= Net Margin Source: Field Survey data, 2019. The result in the diagram above shows detailed marketing channels for beans. The first stage in the marketing channels starts with the major channel which is the producers (beans farmer) who sell to the rural assembler in the production area or in the local market [15]. The rural assembler then assemble the produce and sell to the wholesalers who normally comes from distant place to purchase the product, they normally purchase in large quantity from different rural assemblers and sell in small quantities to retailers who are normally traders, they are those retailers who sell to consumers and some of the local processors of moimoi and Akara. The minor channel is where the wholesalers sell their produce directly to consumers. This normally happened in the urban markets where beans processors directly purchase from the wholesalers as soon as they arrive from the Northern States where beans are purchased. The direct linkage between the producers and consumers is non-existent and not feasible because of the high market risks and financial requirement involved in purchasing it from the producers in the North.

Market concentration for beans marketers in the study area

In Table 2 (a), it was shown that total sales of the sampled wholesalers was 54.75 metric tons and only 25% of them (wholesalers) sold a total of 35.47 metric tons representing 64.78% of the total beans sold by the wholesalers in the area while the majority of the wholesalers (75%) sold only 19.29 metric tons (35.22%) of the total beans marketers. It shows that only few traders (in this case 25%) can significantly influence the beans wholesale trade. The Gini coefficient for wholesalers was 0.663 which is higher than 0.35 that illustrates market equality. This indicates level of inequality of 0.663 among the distribution of the wholesalers [16]. This implies that there is 66.3% inequality in size distribution of wholesalers’ concentration. Thus, the market is 66.3% less competitive (Imperfect). In other words there is low level of competition in the wholesale beans market; it was found that there are few marketers who engaged in wholesale marketing because of the large investment of capital required and the marketing risk associated with travelling, sourcing and assembling of beans from different markets of Northern States. These few wholesalers could influence supplies by increasing or decreasing the quantity marketed. In other words, few wholesalers’ share was significant part of volume of trade in the market such that it could affect the market price which would invariably lead to market imperfection. In Table 2(b), it was shown that total sales of the sampled retailer was 14.35 metric tons, only 4.76% of the retailer sold 28.30% (4.06 metric tons) of the beans marketed, 28.51% of the retailers sold 19.81% (2.84) of the beans marketed, 14.28% of the retailers sold 14.50% (2.08 metric tons) of the beans marketed and 7.14% of the retailers sold 11.92% (1.71 metric tons) of the beans marketed. The Gini coefficient for retailers was 0.656 which is higher than 0.35 that illustrates market equality. This indicates level of inequality of 0.656 among the distribution of the retailers. This implies that there is 65.6% inequality in size distribution of retailer’s concentration thus, the market is 65.6% less competitive (imperfect) [17].

Conclusion

From the findings, it could be deduced that beans marketing is male dominated having majority of them in wholesaling than in retailing and are still at their active age. The beans move from the producers through the local assemblers, wholesalers, retailers and then to the final consumers. The market structure of beans in the study area is imperfectly competitive; this is because the Gini coefficient of the wholesalers and retailers were 0.663 and 0.656 respectively which is categorized as imperfectly competitive of oligopolistic market. This could be due to high level of inequality in the distribution of the traders resulting from existing market barriers to free entry and exist to the market, High initial capital requirement, risks associated with wholesale marketing and market skills

 https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/structural-mapping-of-beans-cowpea-marketers-in-imo-state-nigeria.ID.000130.php

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Lupine Publishers | Studies on Antibiotic Residues in Beef and Effect of Cooking and Freezing on Antibiotic Residues Beef Samples

Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition 

Abstract

The study was performed to determine the presence of antibiotic residues in 50 random samples of fresh beef marketed at Giza governorate, Egypt. The detection of antibiotics residues was carried out according to methods recommended by Hietzman (1994) (4-plates test) and USDA (2011) (Bioassay test).the obtained results indicated that the incidence of antibiotic residues in the examined samples was 3 samples of amino glycosides, 2 samples of B-Lactams (penicillin), one sample of Ciprofloxacin one sample of oxytetracycline. It was shown that 2% of the samples contain Sulphonamides and Ciprofloxacin, (B-Lactam +Oxytetracyclines), (Sulphonamides + Oxytetracycline), (Sulphonamides plusB-Lactam), (Aminoglycosides plus Ciprofloxacin),(Macrolides plus Ciprofloxacin) (Aminoglycosides plus B-Lactam), (Macrolides plus B-Lactams), (Macrolides plus Oxytetracycline. on the other hand, 4% of the samples were regarded for Aminoglycosides plus Oxytetracyclines, Macrolides plus Ciprofloxacin. The study revealed that 13 samples of beef out of 50. The experimental part of this study determines the residues of ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracyclines in experimentally treated rabbits’ samples (50 rabbit) after cooking treatments (Boiling; Microwave; Roasting) and freezing of the rabbit samples. The method of determination of the residues using HPLC. It found that, In Boiling for 30min : reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 20.74% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 87.97%, and in Microwave for 20min reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 38.14% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 86.95% , And Roasting for 30min. at 100 °C .reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 12.84% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 73.98% , Three thigh and breast from each group were kept deep freeze at -20 °C. reduction of ciprofloxacin For 6 months freezing is 65.73% and 12 months freezing is 100% and reduction of oxy tetracycline’s residues For 6 months freezing is 4.41% and 12 months freezing is 30.01%. The public health significance of the antibiotic residues in beef and their probable sources of their presence as well as some recommendation to prevent to gain access to such food items were discussed.

Keywords: Beef; Residues; Oxytetracycline

Introduction

The veterinary drugs used in food producing animals has led to residues occurring in animal products as (meat, milk, eggs and honey), poses a health hazard to the consumer. Due to drug's properties and their pharmacokinetic characteristics, physicochemical or biological processes of animals and their products are subsidiary factors for occurring of residues of veterinary drugs and Improper drug usage and disrespect the withdrawal period. The major public health significances of drug residue are development of antimicrobial drug resistance, hypersensitivity reaction, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, and disruption of intestinal normal flora [1]. Nowadays Antibiotics are applying for control of infectious diseases in chickens' digestive system; incorrect use of these drugs deposits some residue in product. Impacts of different types of cooking and freezing on antibiotic residues in chicken meat were done by determination the residues of ciprofloxacin and oxytetracycline in experimentally treated chickens' muscles after cooking treatments (Boiling, Microwave, Roasting) and freezing of the chicken muscles [2]. Treatment of food animals with therapeutic and sub therapeutic dosage forms of antibiotic-antimicrobial drugs has increased in the last decade. This has been due to the advent of modern mass production operations that involve the maintenance of thousands of animals simultaneously and requires the utilization of carefully formulated and medicated diets that serve to maximize growth, minimize production costs, and provide an acceptable consumer product that is wholesome and affordable. Animal feed that contain antibiotics and other antimicrobials as a prophylactic are used routinely in beef, swine, chicken, and turkey production. In this way the antibiotics antimicrobials help to maintain the optimal health of the animals so treated antibiotics may be co-administered with antimicrobial drugs resulting in increase in drug effectiveness compared to individual drug administrations [3]. Indirect consumption of food contaminated with aflatoxins revealed public health risk to human. Aflatoxicos is leads to hepatocellular carcinoma and growth impairment. Many researches have suggested a link between antibiotic administration in food animals and increase in bacterial resistance in human populations. In this cross-sectional study, the screening for antibiotic residues in kidneys was done using Microbial Inhibition six (6) plate method to provide baseline data for the prevalence of antibiotic residues in animals slaughtered in Abattoir and non- Abattoir slaughterhouse in Negeri Sembilan district areas. Basically, the agar diffusion method uses six media which have been separately cultured with different types of bacteria that are relatively susceptible and resistant towards specific antimicrobial at certain pH level. Forty-one (41) kidney samples and another fourteen (14) samples were obtained from non-abattoir and approved (Senawang, Negeri Sembilan Abattoir) slaughterhouses respectively. 14 (34 %) of the 41 kidney samples from non-abattoir slaughterhouses and 1 (7%) of the 14 samples from non-abattoir slaughterhouses were positive for antibiotic residues. The result of the study revealed significant association (p<0.05) between types of slaughterhouse positive for antibiotic residues using chi-square test and confirmed using Binomial logistic Regression. The test divulged seven times possibility of the samples taken from non-abattoir slaughterhouse to test positive. However, there were no significant differences between all groups of antibiotics from the positive samples. From this study, it is imperative to include more study areas and sample size to conclude the safety of the meat for consumers in [4] boiling for 30 minutes caused a great degradation of tetracyclines residues "oxytetracycline" residues in rabbit meats but not complete destruction. Freezing at -20 ºC caused a lower degradation than that caused by boiling, so neither boiling nor freezing could be used as reliable methods to get rid of tetracyclines residues "oxytetracycline" residues in rabbit meats [5]. demonstrated that ordinary cooking procedures boiling decreased the initial concentrations of tetracycline residues by 56 to 82%. Also, microwaving degrades the initial concentrations of tetracycline residues by 56 to 82% [6].

Material and Methods

Collection of samples

A total of 50 fresh raw beef meat from different cuts of carcasses were collected from Giza governorates shops. The average weight of each sample 250g; each sample was put in sterile polyethylene bag then sealed and labeled. The samples were transferred to the laboratory in ice box without delay. The samples were frozen at (-18 °C) until examined within few days. The detection of antibiotics residues was carried out according to methods recommended by Hietzman (4-plates test) and USDA (2011) (Bioassay test).

Determination of ciprofloxacin: (Agar diffusion by Lieve Okerman, 1998)

samples were confirmed by HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) by pooling all positive samples for ciprofloxacin in only two samples [7].

Determination of (Tetracyclines) Oxytetracycline Residues in meat Tissues (USDA 2011)

samples were confirmed by HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) by pooling all positive samples for ciprofloxacin in only two samples [8].

Experimental study

This study was planned to determine the residues of ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracyclines in experimentally treated rabbits’ samples after cooking treatments (Boiling; Microwave; Roasting) and freezing of the rabbit samples. The method of determination of the residues using HPLC. The experiment was Planned as follow:

Rabbits: fifty rabbits (New Zealand species each weighed3kg) were divided into 3 groups (each 5 five rabbits) free from any antibiotics.

Drugs: Ciprofloxacin 10% ALNASR (Injection I/V) and Oxytetracyclines (20%, S/C, ADWIA).

Procedures: The first group was injected single dose (10mg/kg BWT(I/V) of ciprofloxacin. The second group was injected single dose oxytetracyclines S/C 5mg/kg Bwt. The third group was kept as control. The groups of rabbits were kept in cages for 24hr then slaughtered.

Samples: From each rabbit group (3 thighs and breast) was treated as follow:

Cooking: Boiling for 30min, Microwave for 20min, Roasting for 30minat 100 °C. Each cooked group was three of each (thigh and breast).

Freezing: Three thigh and breast from each group were kept deep freeze at -20 °C For 6 and 12 months. All for mentioned treated groups were either cooking or freezing were examined for the presence of ciprofloxacin and oxytetracyclines residues using HPLC according to [7].

Results

Discussion

Wrong use of antibiotics in food animal production causes wide spreading of resistant pathogens, resistance genes and antimicrobial resistant bacteria in food animals, whereas they enter the food chain so national authorities should put a serious laws and programs aimed to reduce the excessive using of antibiotics in food animals and ensure their risky usage. Due to farmers and meat producers don't follow the laws about withdrawal times of the products [9]. Spreading of antibiotic-resistant bacteria showed serious problems among public heath as mortality rates were increased in cases when resistant infections occurred and increase length of treatments so, require using more expensive antibiotics or antibiotic cocktails [10]. The Concentrations (ug/kg) of different antibiotics residues in each individual raw beef samples were illustrated in Table 1 and Chart1, the result showed 3 samples of amino glycosides, 2 samples of B-Lactams (penicillin),one sample of Ciprofloxacin were rejected according to EEC (1990).The Frequency Distribution of different types of antibiotics Residues in raw beef samples was shown in Table 2 and Chart 2, the frequency range of Aminoglycosides (Gentamicin), B-Lactam(Penicillin), Ciprofloxacin, Macrolides(Erythromycin),Oxytetracyclines, Sulphonamides were 4, 6, 6, 4, 5 and 3 respectively. 56% of samples were contained antibiotic residues [11]. Table 3 & 4 were viewed the effect of boiling on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 20.74% and 87.97%, respectively. The effect of microwave on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 38.14% and 86.95%, respectively that shown in (Table 5-8 chart 3), showed that the roasting effect on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 12.84% and 73.98%, respectively. Gehad [12] mentioned that Since the most of foods-producing animals are always cooked before consumption and the variations in oxytetracycline levels in the meat are dependent on type of cooking. More findings about the effect of cooking on oxytetracycline residue are needed to accurately determine consumer exposure to this drug. The boiling for 30 minutes and roasting at 150°C for 30 minutes caused a complete degradation of drug residues. After 6 months of freezing treatment at -18°C the ciprofloxacin reduced to 65.73% whereas after 12 months the same residues were not detected which viewed in Table 9 & 10. Aboul El [13] that said Controlling of ciprofloxacin residues by freezing at -18 c had a positive effect on degradation of its residues Morshdy et al. [5] said that Freezing at -20ºC caused a lower degradation than that caused by boiling so, neither boiling nor freezing could be used as reliable methods to get rid of oxytetracycline residues in rabbit meats [14,15]. 

Conclusion and Recommendation

From results in this study it is concluded that:

a. Misuse of antibiotics in large animals for treatment without follow of the withdrawal periods of drugs

b. High incidence of antibiotic residues beef meat due to excessive use of antibiotics [16].

c. The effect of cooking on some groups of antibiotic residues (ciprofloxacin and oxytetracyclines), showed

d. Freezing are the only effective methods to degrade ciprofloxacin residues to safety level then microwave, ciprofloxacin is heat stable compound degrade less by heat treatment process.

e. Microwaving and boiling and roasting are the effective heat treatment methods on degrading oxytetracycline residues to safe level. Microwaving and boiling could degrade oxytetracycline residues higher than roasting but freezing had low degrading effect on oxytetracycline residues [17].

Recommendation

It was concluded that The Application of HACCP system is recommended for beef production and other meat products

 https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/studies-on-antibiotic-residues-in-beef-and-effect-of-cooking-and-freezing-on-antibiotic-residues-beef-samples.ID.000129.php

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