Lupine Publishers | Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-Use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestock Development and Animal Agriculture in Southeast, Nigeria

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

One of the major but hidden challenges to livestock development and animal agriculture the world over is resource-use conflicts between crop farmers, pastoralists and other land users. This is so because during conflict situation, almost all human livelihood activities come to a standstill including livestock farming. This study therefore sought to examine how conflicts involving different land users hinder livestock production. Questionnaire and oral interview were used to obtain information from a total of 120 pastoralists in three selected states of Southeast (Abia, Enugu and Imo). Data were analyzed using percentages, mean and standard deviation. The results showed that the mean age of pastoralists was 38, and the mean household size was 10, mean herding experience was 18. The following were the causes of resource-use conflicts - blocking of water sources by crop farmers with a mean (M) response of 3.30, farming across cattle routes (M = 2.95), burning of fields (M = 3.30), theft/stealing of cattle (M = 3.40), among others. The factors attracting the pastoralists to the study area were availability of special pasture (M=2.37), availability of land for lease (M=2.52), water availability (M=2.60) among other reasons. Conflicts, therefore, affect livestock production in the following ways - unsafe field for grazing, poor animal health, loss of human and animal lives, abandonment of herds for dear life and many others.

Keywords: Animal; Agriculture; Conflict; Livestock; Pastoralists

Introduction

In Nigeria, grazing lands are rarely demarcated, and this large sector of agriculture always suffers compared to crop farming or fruit plantation [1]. The latter two are mostly demarcated favorably for the fact that most people are sedentary, and areas needed are small. The establishment of demarcated rangelands and passageways (cattle corridors) allow the livestock to access water points and pastures without causing damage to cropland [2]. Pastoralists usually graze over areas outside farm lands, and these have been accepted to be the norm from time immemorial. Their movements are opportunistic and follow pasture and water resources in a pattern that varies seasonally or year-to-year according to availability of resources [2].

Livestock production in the form of pastoral livestock keeping is among the most suitable means of land use in arid areas of Africa because of its adaptability to highly variable environmental conditions. In Nigeria, most pastoralists do not own land but graze their livestock in host communities [3]. While a few have adopted the more sedentary type of animal husbandry, the increasing crises between farmers and pastoralist presupposes that grazing is a major means of animal rearing in Nigeria. The livestock sector in Nigeria is plagued by several challenges such as lack of adequate supplies of quality feed and pasture, diseases, weak market network, unavailability of adequate water and poor veterinary services [4- 7], reiterate that the sector is constrained by institutions, markets and policy as well as technical issues. More recently concern on herdsmen-farmers’ conflicts has appeared in literature and policy discourse as one of the formidable challenges facing livestock production (particularly ruminant) in many developing countries. Resource-use conflicts in Nigeria have persisted and stands out as a threat to national food security, livestock production and eradication of poverty with pastoralists often regarded as the most vulnerable. Resource-use conflicts not only have a direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of those involved, they also disrupt and threaten the sustainability of agriculture and pastoral production in West Africa [8]. So many land users make their livelihood within the same geographical, political, and socio-cultural conditions, which may be characterized by resource scarcity [9] or political inequality and population pressure. Pastoralists are believed to be more vulnerable compared with farmers because their cattle can be confiscated and/or seized and released only on payment of a fine. Besides, sometimes they are in the minority and could lack political power to their advantage [10].

Resource use conflicts/clashes according to Adisa and Adekunle [11], are becoming fiercer and increasingly widespread in Nigeria. A study of 27 communities in central Nigeria by Nyong and Fiki [12] shows that over 40% of households surveyed had experienced agricultural land-related conflicts, with respondents recalling conflicts that were as far back as 1965 and 2005. Okoli and Atelhe [13], showed that about 13 cases of farmer- herdsmen conflicts across states of the federation which claimed 300 lives of the citizens. In Abia, Enugu and Imo States, there have been cases of conflicts between pastoralists and crop farmers in Umunneochi, Ugwunagbo Uzo-uwani, Nkanu-West,Udi, Ohaji/Egbema, Owerri West, and Okigwe areas of the States over crop destruction by cattle, killing of herders and stabbing of farmers following reprisal attack on different occasions [14]. Therefore, the study examined challenges of resource-use conflicts to livestock production in the Southeast region of Nigeria. It specifically sought to: describe the socioeconomic attributes of respondents; b. examines causes of conflicts as perceived by the pastoralists; c. identifies factors that attract the pastoralists to the state; and, d. ascertain challenges of resource-use conflicts to livestock agriculture.

Methodology

This study was conducted in Southeast agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. The zone lies within latitudes 5oN to 6oN of the equator and longitudes 6oE and 8o E of the Greenwich meridian. Southeast Nigeria is made up of five (5) states-Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The zone occupies a total land mass of about 10, 952, 400 hectares with a population figure of about 33,381,729 persons in 2018 projected from 2006 National Population Commission Census figure [15]. About 60-70% of the inhabitants of the zone are observed to engage in agriculture, mainly crop farming and animal rearing [16]. The 2-stage sampling technique was adopted in the process of sample selection. The first stage was the purposive selection of three states from the Southeast agroecological zone where cases of farmer-pastoralists conflicts have occurred and were reported (Abia, Enugu and Imo). The second stage involved the random selection of 120 pastoralists from the list of 180 pastoralists from their various camps in the three states. Both primary and secondary data sources were used. Simple descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, frequency distribution was used to analyze the socio-economic characteristic of the respondent. Objective 1 was analyzed using percentage presented in table. Mean was computed on a 4-point Likert type rating scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree assigned weight of 4,3,2,1 to capture the perceived causes of the conflicts (objective 2) and challenges of conflicts to livestock development (objective 4). The values were added and divided by 4 to get the discriminating mean value of 2.5. Any mean value equal to or above 2.5 was regarded as a major factor causing conflict and challenge to livestock development, while values less than 2.5 were regarded none. Again, mean was also computed for objective 3 which looked at factors attracting pastoralists to the area on a 3point Likert type rating scale of very serious, serious and not serious assigned values of 3,2,1. The values were added and divided by 3 to obtain a discriminating mean value of 2.0. Any value with mean equal to or greater than 2.0 was considered very serious and vice versa (Figure 1).

Results and Discussion

Socioeconomic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 1 showed that 83.3 percent of the pastoralists were married, while 16.6% were single. The predominance of married people among the pastoralists could be attributed to the complementarity experienced in farm labour provision at the household level. The man, woman and children pool their physical reserves to keep the arm on course. It is worthy to note that there are potential soldiers at the event of land use conflict. Whereas 85.8% of the pastoralists had quranic education, 10 percent had primary education, then, only 4.2% had no formal education. The pastoralists, all (100%) belonged to social organizations; Islamic unions and or herder unions. These respondents who belonged to social organization will likely benefit and share knowledge and experiences through contacts and cross-fertilization of ideas. The organization could also provide forum to plot, plan and execute attack.

The table reveals that 47.5 percent of the pastoralists indicated that the animals are not their own but that of military officers, retired and serving. Some of the animals are also owned by alhajis and traditional rulers in the north (29.2%) who have established contacts with their kits and kins to protect their interest where ever they may be. Also, 20.8 percent and 2.5 percent respectively are owned by the pastoralists themselves and few politicians who also trade in animals. The result explains the effrontery of the pastoralists and their seeming more powerful than the natives who are always helpless at their audacity. The mean age range was 38 years. This implies that the pastoralists are also young and can endure the difficult nature of their practice of trekking very long-distance day and night. The average herding experience was 18 years. Experience is a valuable asset. The years of experience of the pastoralists could enable them to relate encounters they had; causes, effects and resolution. The mean herd size was 61. This is indeed large, and it reveals the fears of the crop farmers should cattle numbering into 30-100 invade their farms. A great deal of damage would be done, livelihood activities may be lost, food insecurity enthroned in addition to accentuated poverty. The average monthly income was N53,500.00. The pastoralists in their course sell the cattle and they also reproduce under their care.

Perceived Causes of Resource-Use Conflicts in the Study Area

Table 2 showed the pastoralists perception of the causes of the conflicts involving them and the crop farmers. Although they may seem to blame crop farmers or shy away from reality of telling the truth. To them the causes of the conflicts included blocking of water source by crop farmers (M= 3.30), farming across cattle routes (M = 2.95), limited grazing areas (M = 2.70), burning of rangeland/field by crop farmers (M = 3.28). They claim that farmers block the wells, ponds and river routes where their animals drink. They also assert that farmers set their grazing areas ablaze and farm across their animal routes thereby hindering their movement. Other causes of conflict were claim of land ownership (M = 2.64) by the farmers; farmers fight herdsmen (M = 3.00), setting of traps along the cattle way (M = 2.74), harassment of pastoralists (M = 3.01) by the youths, stealing/theft of cattle (M = 3.40), and poisoning of water source (M = 2.80). The pastoralists see land as a free gift of nature and as such nobody should prevent others from the use of it and make laws regarding it against others. To them, land is for all and should be used as desired.

Factors Attracting Pastoralists to the Study Area

Table 3 showed that several factors attracted the Fulani pastoralists to the state. Among the factors were water availability with a mean (M) response of 2.60 and availability of land to lease with mean score of 2.52. Water is life of both man and animals and the availability of streams and rivers in the Southern part of Nigeria becomes a reason for the pastoralists’ invasion of Imo state. Again, even during the dry season, water sources remain intact as families get water either from streams, rivers and even ponds. Land for lease or rent (M=2.52) to the head of the pastoralists is also available. These lands are mostly abandoned land not good enough for immediate crop production. The pastoralists are given this type of land for a specified period of time. Availability of special pasture with mean score of 2.37, market opportunity (M = 2.04), absence of tse-tse fly (M = 2.41) and support/backing from influential people with mean (M=2.11) were other reasons attracting pastoralists to the study area. Special pasture here means grasses and legumes that are highly nutritious to the animals and that can grow faster after being eaten by the animals. It involves digestibility, palatability and fastens reproduction of animals. This type of pasture draws the animals to the area often. Influential people in community also work with the pastoralists. These include traditional rulers who come in contact with the pastoralists, politicians, retired/serving civil servants, and military men-retired/serving who have established relationship with the pastoralists. Because they have the backing / support of those individuals, the pastoralists flock to the study.

Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestock Development and Animal Agriculture

Conflict is a major challenge to livestock development and animal agriculture not only in the study area, but the world over. Any situation that brings chaos is not healthy for humans and animals as all will be restless and disturbed. Table 4 revealed that during conflicts the grazing field for animals becomes unsafe as shown by a mean response of 3.30, poor animal health (M = 3.27), animal/herd abandonment (M = 3.38), loss of human lives (M = 3.33), loss of farm income (M = 3.37), cattle rustling/raiding (M = 3.32) and high cost of animal products (M = 3.25). The above situation presents a big challenge to animal agriculture as rearers of animals will put a stop to business and run for their dear lives thereby making the livestock suffer neglect and abandonment. Due to concern for human lives and property, the business of animal rearing will take second fiddle, after all, the living will do the things that are important because there is life. Again, during conflict, livestock markets are closed (M = 3.20) as both buyers and sellers will be in fear of going to the market to risk being attack. Market is an area where buying and selling and other economic transactions take place for the survival of man. When market for livestock is cease, the economic life of the people is touched. Demand for livestock is reduced (M = 3.27), total loss of pasture (M = 3.40) where animals feed is also a challenge to livestock development and animal agriculture. Conflicts reduces the facilitating functions of animals (M = 3.21). Rearers of animals sell them for meeting up with their financial obligation and family responsibilities. The money from cattle and other animals facilitates the performance of other necessary roles, function and obligation sponsoring social gathers and other traditional events.

Conflict changes the structure of livestock market which disproportionately affects the livelihoods of livestock producers and livestock traders as well as consumers’ access to livestock products. Other major factors are: insecurity of trade routes; market closures or destruction; lack of demand; the departure of traders from some conflict-affected counties FAO [17], forced migration of millions of heads of livestock. In some cases, herders’ choices of migration routes were influenced by the need to protecting their livestock rather than feed and water availability.

Conclusion

Conflicts between pastoralists and crop farmers in agrarian communities present a formidable challenge to livestock production in Nigeria. This is due to the problems of incompatibility of livelihood strategies, competition for access and use of natural resources such as land and water. Pastoralists - crop farmers’ conflict has production and economic consequences for herding. Among the most direct effects are loss of human lives, reduced number of livestock as well as reduced access to water, pasture and even loss of homes. In addition, the conflicts lead to distrust in other communities and a strong omnipresent perception of insecurity which entails several and partly interconnected subsequent effects. These effects include ineffective resource use, reduced mobility, closing of markets and schools and obstacles for investments. There is a need for effective conflict mitigation that breaks the cycle of violence, retaliation and impoverishment. There is need to move from the conflicting to a cooperative path, which could start by addressing the capability of the actors

 https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/pastoralists-perception-of-resource-use-conflicts-as-a-challenge-to-livestock-development-and-animal-agriculture-in-southeast-nigeria.ID.000126.php

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online

For more Food And Nutrition Please Click 

Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/

To Know more Open Access Publishers Click on Lupine Publishers

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers

Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online

Lupine Publishers | Changes in Proximate Composition of Mullet Fish Steaks During Frozen Storage and Cooking Techniques

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Cooking techniques were applied on Mullet fish (Mugil cephalous) steaks. Raw Mullet fish steaks were stored at -180C for 180 days to study the changes in the proximate composition during storage period. The proximate composition of raw Mullet fish was affected by cooking techniques. Moisture contents decreased in fried and grilled mullet steaks while protein, fat and ash contents were significant increase in cooked mullet steaks. The loss of moisture in fried samples amounted to the highest levels, also the protein and fat value was proportionally high. The raw and cooked Mullet fish showed a gradual decrease in their contents of moisture, protein and fat as affected by frozen storage period and cooking method while ash contents were increased. Mullet fish steaks maintained their nutritional value until the end of the storage period.

Keywords: Frying; Grilling; Mullet Fish Steaks; Freezing; Proximate Composition

Introduction

Fish is highly nutritious, rich in micronutrients, minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids and proteins, and represents a valuable supplement in diets lacking these nutrients, essential vitamins and minerals. In many countries, especially developing countries, the average per capita fish consumption may be low, but, even in small quantities, fish can significantly improve the quality of dietary proteins by complementing the essential amino acids that are often present only in low quantities in vegetable-based diets1. Preservation provides a long shelf‐life for fish and fish products. Preservation can be defined as the storage of excess fish when they are abundantly caught or produced so they can be consumed as if fresh in times when food is scarce or when transported to long distances. Preservation affects food in two ways:

I. it keeps the original freshness and properties of fish;

II. it changes the original properties of the food and creates new product.

The main purpose of both of these is to prevent spoilage, especially by microorganisms. Several preservation methods have been developed, some of them providing a longer shelf‐life than others. The choice of a preservation method depends on the product, properties of the product, availability of energy, the storage facilities, and the costs of the method. It is sometimes necessary to combine methods. Proximate chemical composition generally means percentage composition of basic constituents such as moisture, proteins, fats, carbohydrates and minerals. In recent times, the importance of fishery products as a source of nutrients including high quality proteins, unsaturated lipids, a number of vitamins, and minerals has been realized. Several fishery items have attracted the attention of nutritionists and dieticians as a source of therapeutically important polyunsaturated fatty acids [2]. In the freezing process, the temperature degree lowers to under the freezing point. In this case, most of the water to turn into ice. The freezing point passed on the total soluble solid or substances dissolved in the fluid of the tissue [3]. Fish is processed in different methods such as frying and grilling and roasting. These methods improved the hygienic quality by inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms and enhanced the digestibility and bio-availability of nutrient in the digestive tract [4]. In Egypt, Mullet fish is usually processed by various cooking methods, such as grilling and frying, before consumption. Thermal processing techniques are widely used to improve eating quality and safety of food products and to extend the shelf life of the products [5]. During cooking process, some physical and chemical changes take place which either impair or improve the nutritional value of food. Therefore, digestibility is increased because of protein denaturation in food while, the content of thermo labile compounds, vitamins or polyunsaturated fatty acids is often reduced [6]. The aim of current study was to follow up the changes which occur in chemical composition of mullet fish steaks by frying and grilling technique during frozen storage period.

Methods and Data

Sample Preparation

Ten kilogram of fresh Mullets fish (Mugil cephalous) were obtained from one of the fishermen in Wadi El-Rayan Lake, Fayoum Governorate in February 2016. They had been transported in ICE-BOX to the laboratory of Fish Processing Technology, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. In laboratory, whole fish were immediately beheaded, gutted and cut into steaks then washed gently with tap water. Steaks samples were divided into four groups. One of them was cooked by frying and grilling methods in the same day of the acquisition of the fish, corresponding to 0 day. The other samples were packed in polyethylene bags with oxygen permeability, stored at -18˚C for six months in domestic freezer, and removed for analysis after 60, 120 and 180 days to cooked.

Experimental Design

The different ingredients included; sunflower oil, table salt, wheat flour, wheat bran, garlic, black pepper, cumin and red pepper were obtained from the local market at Fayoum, Egypt.

Cooking Techniques (Table 1)

Raw Mullet Fish Steaks

Raw Mullet fish steaks were packed in polyethylene bags and stored in deep freezer at -18˚C for 180 days. Samples were withdrawn periodically at intervals of 60 days for analysis and to prepare the fried and grilled fish steaks.

Analytical Methods

4.5.1.Proximate Chemical Composition: Moisture, crude protein, crude fat and ash contents were determined according to [7]. Total carbohydrates were calculated by difference method using the following equation: Total carbohydrates =100% - (% protein + % fat + % ash + % moisture) [8].

Statistical Analysis

Chemical composition data were analyzed statistically using SPSS 16.0 for windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). least significant difference test (LSD) at (P ≤ 0.05) and Standard Error (Mean ± SE) were calculated.

Results and Discussion

Effect of Cooking Techniques on Mullet Fish Steaks

The effects of frying and grilling cooking technique on the proximate composition (moisture, protein, lipid, ash and carbohydrates) of Mullet fish are presented in Table 2. Moisture content of raw, fried and grilled steaks of Mullet fish were 71.45±0.83%, 60.23±1.28% and 64.72±1.73%, respectively. There was significant (p < 0.05) loss in the moisture content of raw fish due to the cooking process by frying and grilling. It was observed that moisture content was decreased by 11.22 % in the fried steaks and 6.73 % in the grilled samples. This observation agreed with El-Sherif et al. [9] for fried Tilapia fish as well as for some fish species [10]. The protein content in raw Mullet fish was significant increased (P<0.05) in the fried and grilled Mullet steaks. Increasing protein content in the cooked fish samples (fried and grilled) due to the water loess during cooking. Protein contents were19.4±0.81, 23.77±0.44 and 22.65±1.15% in raw, fried and grilled Mullet steaks, respectively. Similar data showed that deep-fried fish had the highest protein value comparing other cooking methods [10, 11].

Data given in Table 2 showed that total lipids in raw, fried and grilled Mullet samples were 7.41±0.81, 13.45±0.26 and 10.2±1.15%, respectively. These values were differing significantly (P<0.05). The higher lipid content of fried Mullet fish than grilled steaks is mainly due to the absorption of oil and losing moisture during frying process [12]. Ash contents were 1.46±0.27, 2.05±0.29 and 1.98±0.57 in raw, fried and grilled fish steaks, respectively (Table 2). The differences of ash content higher of fried steaks is due to more loss of moisture took place during deep frying cooking comparing with grilling method [11]. The carbohydrates contents of cooked fish steaks showed similar observations. The changes found in the chemical composition of Mullet fish cooked by frying and grilling were similar to several studies carried out in other fish species included Sea bass [10-14].

Effect of Cooking Techniques on Pre-frozen Mullet Fish Steaks

The effect of frozen storage on moisture, protein, fat, and ash contents of Mullet fish steaks post-cooked by frying and grilling were studied. The obtained results are tabulated in Tables 3-7.

Moisture

Table 3 showed the effects of storage at -18°C and cooking technique on the moisture contents of raw Mullet fish as well as Mullet fish steaks cooked by frying and grilling. The initial moisture contents of raw, fried and grilled fish samples were 71.45±0.84, 60.23±1.28 and 64.72±1.73 %, respectively. The differences were a gradual decreasing in their contents of moisture as affected by frozen storage period and cooking technique. After two months of storage, moisture contents of raw, fried and grilled fish samples were 70.60±2.07, 59.04±0.6 and 63.45±1.41, respectively. As the storage period extended, the moisture content considerably decreased. At the end of six months storage, moisture of raw, fried and grilled fish samples decreased down to 69.1±2.88, 57.64±1.52 and 60.91±0.525%, respectively. Moisture losses in raw, fried and grilled samples were estimated by 2.35, 2.59 and 3.81%, respectively after six months of frozen storage. The loss of moisture of the pre-frozen fish samples could be attributed to the sublimation of ice in frozen storage and the loss of drip during thawing process in addition to water loss due to heat during frying and grilling processes [15]. Similar findings were reported for other species of fish such as Sea bass fillets [16], Carp fish cutlets [17], Tilapia fillets [18], Labeo rohita [19] and Catla fish cutlet [20].

Protein

Table 4 showed that effect of storage periods at -18°C and cooking technique on protein contents of raw and cooked Mullet fish products. Protein contents of raw, fried and grilled samples at time zero were 19.4±.81, 23.77±.44and 22.65±0.1.15 %, respectively. The results indicated that protein contents of raw (uncooked) and cooked Mullet fish samples gradually decreased during storage. As shown in Table 5 after six months of frozen storage protein contents of raw, fried and grilled cooked Mullet fish samples decreased to 18.5±2.59, 22.9±.52 and 21.8±1.6%, respectively. Protein decreases were estimated by 2.35, 2.59 and 3.81 % in raw, fried and grilled fish samples, respectively in related to the initial protein content of raw unfrozen sample. Protein loss during frozen storage of fish products had been studied and several mechanisms were suggested to explain this behavior [21] reported that the changes in protein content during frozen storage may be due to the loss of some volatile nitrogenous compounds during frozen storage and protein hydrolysis by enzymes which enhanced the loss of water soluble nitrogen with separated drip [19] attributed protein loss observed during frozen storage of (Labeorohita) to the leaching effect on amino acid and water-soluble protein during thawing, process.

Fat

Storage changes in fat content of raw and cooked Mullet fish samples were periodically determined at intervals of two months during frozen storage at -18°C and the results obtained are given in Table 5. Fat content of raw as well as the fried and grilled samples immediately after cooking process were 7.41±.81, 13.45±.26 and 10.2±1.15%, respectively. During storage, fat content slightly decreases down to 7±.58, 13.15±1.24 and 9.95±.548 %, respectively at the end of 180 days storage. The losses in fat contents of Mullet fish samples at the end of storage period were calculated by 5.53, 2.23 and 2.45 % in raw, fried and grilled samples, respectively. In a study made by Gandotra et al. [19] on (Labeo rohita) fish during frozen storage for 21days at -12 ± 2°C the losses in lipids were 5.44, 15.80 and 22.27% after 7, 14 and 21 days of storage. Similar results reported by Arannilewa et al. [22], [18,23]. The decreasing in fat content might be due to oxidation and hydrolysis of lipids which result in the formation of some volatile compounds as aldehydes and ketones [19].

Ash

Changes in ash content of raw and pre-frozen cooked Mullet fish samples during frozen storage at-18°C for 180 days are presented in Table 6. The raw and cooked Mullet samples showed gradual increasing in their contents of ash during frozen storage. The initial ash contents of raw, fried and grilled samples were 1.46±.27, 2.05±.29 and 1.98±.57%, respectively. Ash content gradually increased during frozen storage up to 4.55±.32, 5.61±.69 and 6.49±.75% at the end of storage period, respectively. Similar observation was found during frozen storage of some fish products 19. 23 reported that ash content of fish sausage made from Catfish and Tilapia increased during storage at -18°C for 120days. The increase in ash contents of fish products during frozen storage might be attributed to the loss recorded in protein and fat content which reflected the increasing found in ash contents. On the other hand, some studies showed a decreasing in ash content of fish during frozen storage which was attributed to the drip loss during thawing process [19].

Carbohydrate

The carbohydrate of raw and cooked Mullet fish products during frozen storage were in Table 7. Carbohydrates of raw and cooked Mullet fish sample were determined by difference and therefore the change of it might be due to the change of other constituents mainly as a result of added spices.

Conclusion

Proximate composition of Mullet fish steaks showed significant differences between cooked and raw samples and during frozen storage. The loss of moisture in fried samples amounted to the highest levels; also, the protein and fat value was proportionally high. Mullet fish showed a gradual decrease in their chemical composition contents. Mullet fish steaks maintained their nutritional value until the end of the storage period

 

https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/changes-in-proximate-composition-of-mullet-fish-steaks-during-frozen-storage-and-cooking-techniques.ID.000125.php

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://lupinepublishersgroup.com/

For more Food And Nutrition Please Click 

Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/

To Know more Open Access Publishers Click on Lupine Publishers

Lupine Publishers | Effect on Nutritional Composition of Organically and Inorganically Cultivated Garlic

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity [1]. Conventional agriculture is characterized by using a great amount of chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, and growth regulators etc., resulting in heavy reliance on non-renewable resources. The present investigation was carried out with the objectives to study the nutrient composition of garlic grown under organic and inorganic conditions. Samples of organically and inorganically grown garlic were procured from the university farm. Proximate Nutrients composition and mineral composition of garlic grown organically and inorganically was studied. The results of the present study revealed that inorganically grown garlic had significantly higher moisture and crude protein per cent as compared to organically grown garlic. Significant difference was observed in crude fibre content of the organically grown and inorganically grown garlic. Garlic grown organically had significantly higher ash content as compared to their inorganically grown and conventionally grown counterparts. Calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, and manganese content of organically grown garlic were significantly higher as compared to inorganically grown garlic.

Keywords: Garlic; Nutritional evaluation; Organic; Inorganic; Conventional

Introduction

Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity [1]. Organic agriculture system is based on principle intended to guarantee the production of nutritious food with minimal environmental impact [2]. Organic system consistently differs from conventional system primarily in the prohibition of manufactured soluble fertilizers and pesticides. The extent to which these inputs are replaced by alternative management practices for inputs such as green manure crops, compost, fertilizers or integrated pest management varies between commodities, location and individual farmers [3]. Conventional agriculture is characterized by using a great amount of chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, and growth regulators etc., resulting in heavy reliance on non-renewable resources, reduced biodiversity, polluted water resources, chemical residues in food, soil degradation and health risks to farm workers handling pesticides all of which bring into question the sustainability of the conventional farming system [4,5].

Public interest is increasingly focusing on the problem of the quality of foods because of people’s growing awareness of health and the environment. The global consumer is increasingly becoming health cautious with diet being the most important aspect in health control agenda. Pesticides are widely used throughout the world in agriculture to protect crops, but they pose significant health problems besides commonly contaminating soil, air and water. The high-risk groups exposed to pesticides include the production workers, formulators, sprayers, mixers, loaders and agricultural farm workers. Organic food products with high nutritive value and without chemicals (with potential carcinogenic and mutagenic properties) are being increasingly preferred over conventional agro products, which are cultivated using insecticides, pesticides and chemical fertilizers. The vegetable crops have been well advocated in solving the problem of food security in India.

They are rich source of minerals, vitamins, fibre and contain a fair amount of protein as well as carbohydrates. Garlic and its supplements have long been consumed in many cultures as a natural remedy against a range of human illnesses, including various bacterial, viral and fungal infections, hypolipidemic, antiplatelet, antitumoral, regulating blood pressure, lowering blood sugar and cholesterol levels and providing pro circulatory effects. It is fascinating to observe how ancient cultures came to the same conclusion about garlic’s action and efficacy as confirmed from results of modern science. Analysis of data showed in numerous studies confirm that many people believe that organic foods are healthier and safer than inorganically produced foods and are produced in a more environmentally compatible manner [1,6].

Although the interest in the organically grown foods has been on increase, there have not been substantial studies to substantiate convincingly that organically grown foods are nutritionally superior to their inorganically grown counterparts. Organic Farming can contribute to meaningful socio-economic and ecologically sustainable development, especially in poorer countries [7]. Owing to the nutritional importance of vegetables in our diet and increasing concern toward health and organic farming of people’s it becomes important to evaluate the nutrient composition of vegetables grown under organic and inorganic conditions. The present investigation tried to determine the nutrient composition of garlics grown under organic and inorganic conditions.

Materials and Methods

Procurement of Vegetables

The samples of the garlic grown under organic and inorganic conditions were procured from Vegetables Farm, Chaudhry Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. Samples of garlic were also procured from the local market for comparative study.

Nutrient Composition

Sample Preparation: After cleaning garlic cloves dried in hot air oven at 60 ± 5 °C. After drying, dried powder garlic were grounds in an electric grinder to a fine powder. The powder kept in an air tight container at room temperature for further analysis except for moisture in which fresh samples of garlic was used. Proximate Nutrients: Moisture (in fresh sample), crude protein, crude fibre, and total ash were estimated by employing standard method of analysis [8].

Minerals: Total minerals including Ca, P, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu were analysed by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer [9].

Data Analysis

Standard method of statistics i.e. analysis of variance was used for analyzing the data obtained.

Result and discussion

Proximate Composition of Vegetables

The data presented in Table 1 showed that moisture content of organically grown and conventionally grown was almost similar but inorganically grown garlic contained significantly higher moisture content (62.89 %) as compared to organically (62.04%) and conventionally grown (62.01%) garlic. These variations in the moisture content of vegetables might be because plant grown in inorganically managed soil grows very fast and in this period of rapid growth, there is more water uptake and less nutrient uptake from the soil [10]. But in contrast, plants grown organically managed soil take time to grow and have more time to absorb nutrients from soil and thus have less water in their cell matrix.

It has been observed that both conventionally grown and inorganically grown garlic had significantly higher protein content (6.85 and 6.78 %) respectively as compared to organically grown garlic (6.33 %). The lower crude protein content in the organically grown vegetables might be attributed to the non-availability of adequate nitrogen content throughout the crop growth period, as there is slow release of nitrogen from organic manures [11]. The crude fibre content of garlic grown organically, inorganically and conventionally was observed almost similar. However, ash content of organically grown garlic was observed significantly higher (4.26 %) as compared to inorganically grown (3.82 %) and conventionally grown garlic counterparts (3.96 %). This might be attributed to higher dry matter content of the organically grown vegetables.

Mineral Composition of Vegetables:

The data on mineral composition elucidated in Table depicted that garlic grown under organic conditions had significantly higher amount of calcium (53.83 mg/100 g) as compared to those were grown under inorganic conditions (47.18 mg/100 g); however, calcium content of conventionally grown garlic (50.00 mg /100 g) non significantly differed from organically and inorganically grown counterparts. Organically grown garlic had significantly higher amount of phosphorus and iron (344 and 3.82 mg/100 g) respectively as compared to inorganically grown as well as conventionally grown garlic (323.83 and 320.83; 2.35 and 2.48 mg/100 g) respectively. Non-significant differences were observed between conventionally grown and inorganically grown garlic for their phosphorus and iron content. The increase in phosphorus content of organically grown vegetables may be attributed to increased availability of soil phosphorus due to the solubilizing effect of organic acids, which are produced from decomposing organic manures.

Further, the organic manures also reduce the fixation of phosphorus and increase the available phosphorus concentration in soil for absorption resulting in increased content of phosphorus in vegetables [11]. Variation in iron content of organically and inorganically grown vegetables might be attributed to the fact that inorganically managed soils contain adequate amount of iron but in an unavailable form. The presence of abundant microorganisms in organically managed soil stimulates substances such as citrate and lactate to combine with the soil iron and make them more available to plant roots [12]. The comparison between mean values of zinc content of garlic revealed that organically grown and conventionally grown garlic had significantly higher (2.07 and 2.06mg/100g) zinc content as compared to inorganically grown garlic (1.61mg/100g); whereas a non-significant difference was observed between organically grown and conventionally grown garlic.

Copper content of organically grown garlic (0.97 mg/100g) was significantly higher as compared to their inorganically grown (0.68mg/100g) and conventionally grown (0.72mg / 100g) respectively. Copper and zinc are common constituents of animal feed supplements and a possible explanation for the higher concentrations of Cu and Zn in the organic samples is that the application of manures, more typical of organic cultivation, may act as an additional source of Cu and Zn to the soil and the plants [13,14]. Garlic grown under organic conditions had significantly higher manganese content (1.88mg/100g) as compared to those were grown under inorganic conditions (1.79 mg/100g). However, manganese content of organically grown and conventionally grown garlic (1.86mg/100g) was observed almost similar.

Conclusion

We can conclude that organically grown garlic may have more nutritional benefits than inorganically grown counterparts and consumption of these vegetables can be beneficial for our health though more research is needed on this part. People should be encouraged to consume organically grown vegetables as they have better nutrient profile and consumer acceptability

https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/effect-on-nutritional-composition-of-organically-and-inorganically-cultivated-garlic.ID.000124.php

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online

For more Food And Nutrition Please Click 

Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/

To Know more Open Access Publishers Click on Lupine Publishers

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers

Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online

Lupine Publishers | Influence of Psychosocial Factors on Optimal Dietary Intake of University Students of Kenya

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly journal of Food and Nutrition

Abstract

Background: University students’ encounter environmental changes which exerts mixed perceptions on sufficiency of their diets.

Objective: This cross-sectional study determined the influence of psychosocial factors influencing optimal dietary intake of university students.

Methods: This was conducted from August to November 2017 within 5 Kenyan universities purposively sampled. Stratified sampling was utilized to obtain 230 respondents. Quantitative data was collected where exploratory factor analysis tested dimensionality of questions, while skewness and kurtosis assessed normality of data. Structural equation modelling determined predictive power of latent variables.

Results: The model fitted data acceptably well; P<0.001, Tucker Lewis index =0.93, comparative fit index =0.95, root mean square error of approximation =0.090, Hoelter critical N (0.01=230], with optimal dietary intake. Regression weights showed predictive power for student’s attitude (β=0.68, P<0.01), subjective norm (β=0.36, P<0.05), perceived behavioural control (β=0.34, P<0.05) towards intention (β=0.95 P<0.001).

Conclusion: Student’s attitude was a significant factor in improving and upholding optimal dietary intake.

Keywords: Optimal dietary intake; Psychosocial factors; University students; Theory of planned behaviour

Introduction

Sub-optimal dietary habits are among the major risk factors for obesity, undernourishment, micro-nutrient deficiencies and associated metabolic conditions, particularly if adopted during early adulthood [1,2]. This is becoming more prevalent across all age groups where traditional healthy diets are being progressively replaced by more westernized dietary patterns [3]. University students seem to be the most affected by this nutrition transition [4]; studies have shown that young adults living away from home to attend university, experience numerous health-related behavioural changes, including the adoption of unhealthy dietary habits [5- 7]. These behaviours are mostly attributed to drastic changes in the environment and resources available, frequent exposure to unhealthy foods and habits. This leads to higher consumption of energy-dense foods and low intake of nutrient-dense foods in addition to frequent skipping of meals. Nutritionists and dieticians’ support have been reported to be an essential motivational factor in promotion of optimal dietary habit across populations of all age groups; however, evidence suggests this is not basically the case for university students.

For university students to be inspired to practice healthy dietary habits, the optimal balance between factors that manipulate their cognitive and experiential aspects must be achieved. These cognitive and experiential aspects are the psychosocial factors that determine student’s attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control towards intention to practice healthy behaviour in this case optimal dietary intake. Intention is a significant predictor of dietary intake, which can be optimal or suboptimal. Studies have described many factors associated with the intention to practice optimal dietary intake amongst university students. These factors include environmental, socio- demographic and behavioural that determines students’ decision to optimal dietary intake [8-10]. However, there is limited information on psychosocial factors which include attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control in association to practice of optimal dietary intake [11]. Thus, this current study aimed at revealing the influence of student’s attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control on their intention to practice optimal dietary intake.

Methods and Data

Study Framework

The study adapted Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model [12] (Figure 1) to fit psychosocial factors that influence optimal dietary intake of university students. The TPB model works on the basis that the approach to target behaviour is to assess behavioural intention, which in turn is seen to be an operation of 4 exogenous variables: attitudes, subjective norm, perceived control and intention. In this context, students’ attitude was the certainty about likely outcomes of optimal dietary intake multiplied by evaluation of these outcomes (behavioural beliefs). Subjective norm was the belief of the students over important people in his/her life that may or may not have influenced them to optimally feed multiplied by the level of compliance to such influences (normative beliefs). Perceived behavioural control was viewed as control factors to promote or inhibit the students to optimally feed multiplied by the power they had over those factors (control beliefs). Perceived behavioural control was measured both directly and indirectly since optimal dietary intake was not under completely volitional control. Therefore, students’ attitude and subjective norm were posited to have influenced optimal dietary intake indirectly through intention.

While perceived behavioural control both indirectly and directly manipulated optimal dietary intake. Intention was described as a behavioural tendency that captured the motivational factors that had an impact on behaviour (optimal dietary intake). The latent variables were endogenous since they depend on observed variables to be measured, whereas observed variables were exogenous since they are independent variables. When a variable is believed to “cause” another variable, the relationship between the variables is shown as a directed arrow, from cause to effect. Whether one variable “causes” another is an assumption that the researcher makes and only data can reveal. Co variation between 2 variables is shown as a 2-headed arrow connecting the variables. As a theory of competency and mastery, psychosocial factors influencing students’ optimal dietary intake describes that initiation and persistence towards it are determined primarily by students’ optimal dietary intake cognitive judgments and expectations.

To comprehend optimal dietary intake using the TPB model [12], an elicitation study was initially conducted prior to the current study to elicit salient beliefs on which exogenous variables are based. This was then employed to construct a questionnaire, which was pretested and used to assess the influence of these psychosocial factors on optimal dietary of university students. Therefore, the Theory of Planned Behaviour model was the theory of focus since it has the ability to distinguish between those who perform and do not perform the behaviour under investigation [13]. Therefore, by utilizing the TPB, one can gain an understanding of the behaviour [optimal dietary intake] by tracing its determinants back to the underlying beliefs and possibly further influence the behaviour by changing a sufficient number of these beliefs [14]. A structural model was specified as per the objectives and tested as a good fit for data obtained on optimal dietary intake.

Study Area and Design

The study was conducted within 5 Public Kenyan Universities purposively selected with the aim that they had operational human nutrition programme that emphasized the health benefits of optimal dietary intakes. This cross-sectional study was conducted from August to November 2017 amongst 230 randomly selected and stratified students receiving education in a human nutrition related bachelor’s degree from the 5 universities. Permission was obtained from the School of Graduate Studies. Ethical approval was given by National Council for Science and Technology. Research authorization was granted by the respective administration of the 5 universities. We sought informed consent from the respondents who were informed on the research procedures, details and assured of confidentiality.

Sample Criteria and Sampling Techniques

Sampling procedures involved selection of universities and respondents. Purposive sampling was used to identify 5 Public Universities for the study with the target that they offered Human Nutrition related bachelor’s degree programme and were accredited by their regulator- Kenya Nutritionists and Dietetics Institute. Proportionate stratified sampling was used to get the sample size of respondents from each stratum of University A (46), University B (44), University C (50), University D (48) and University E (42). Random sampling was then employed on each stratum depending on its size to get the final study sample size of N=230. Sample criteria included both males and females’ students pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Human Nutrition. Participation in the study was voluntary although 4 % of respondents dropped out of the study due to inevitable circumstances but were immediately replaced through a random sampling procedure performed on eligible participants. The respondents were not compensated for taking part in the study but were highly appreciated and given a debriefing letter after completion of the interview sessions.

Data Collection Instrument

Data collection was conducted from August to November 2017 by the main researcher and 5 trained research assistants. A 7-point Likert-type scale optimal dietary intake questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data. Both convergent and divergent validity were determined by comparing answers to each question measuring the same concept, then by measuring this answer to the respondent’s response to a question that asks for the exact opposite answer. Back-translation was also done to check for reliability of the translation. The pretested questionnaire was acceptable based on factor analysis criteria used and concepts of measurements loading with communalities for each item being greater than 0.5. This questionnaire was acceptable having confirmed adequacy of sample size (N=230) using test of sphericity. The internal consistency estimates of the various concepts, using Cronbach’s alpha, ranged from 0.64 to 0.89. The closer the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is to 1.0 the greater the internal consistency of the items in the scale. George and Mallery’s rule of thumb was used to classify the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients generated.

Statistical Methods

Data was entered into SPSS version 15 to calculate for reliability tests where Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the consistency of the questions. The response for each question was distinctive, and rotated component factors loading for each variable was subjected to principal component analysis. George and Mallery’s [15] rule of thumb was employed to categorize the average of communalities of student’s attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and intention. To establish whether the model nested based on TPB variables applied to optimal dietary intake fitted the data acceptably well, structural equation modelling using AMOS version 7 was conducted. Structural equation modelling was used to determine the influence of student’s attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and intention on optimal dietary intake. Intention was assessed by the extent to which respondents were willing to practice optimal dietary intake [eating a balanced diet, diet diversity & variety, and sufficient diets]. Measurements of this was done using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, where 1 represented not at all and 7 represented very much. The overall model fit was evaluated using χ2 (CMIN) and relative χ2 divided by degrees of freedom (CMIN/df), comparative fit index (CFI), the standardized root means square error of approximation (RMSEA), Hoelter’s critical N, and Bollestine bootstrap. CFI and Tucker– Lewis index (TLI) values greater than 0.90 were considered satisfactory. RMSEA values less than 0.08 were considered satisfactory. CMIN/ df was regarded as fit when it ranged 3:1 and considered better when closer but not less than 1.0 Hoelter’s critical N for significance levels of 0.05 and 0.01 were used where bootstrap samples were set at 200.

Results

Influence of Student Attitude, Subjective Norm, and Perceived Behavioural Control on Intention to Practice Optimal Dietary Intake

It was found that the items characterizing attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control had high regression weights approaching to 1.00. The relationships between observed variables in the model (Figure 2) were significant. The goodness of fit was statistically non-significant at the .01 level, but the model would be rejected at the 0.05 level (χ2 = 620.1, df = 250, P = 0.12, χ2 / df = 2.30). Although the χ2 was under the recommended 3:1 range indicating acceptable fit, after significant modification indices were unassociated. Other fit indices (TLI = 0.93, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA =0.090) also showed a good model fit (Table 1).

Note: RMSEA=Root mean square residual; CFI=Comparative fit index; CMIN/DF=Chi-square/degree of freedom; TLI= TuckerLewis Index; χ²= Chi-square.

Hoelter’s critical N values recommend that the model would have been accepted for lower limit at the .05 significance level with 200 cases, and the upper limit of N for the .01 significance level is 230 cases. The Bollen–Stine P =0.12 provided further reassurance about the model fit among other global fit indices. The regression weights (Figure 2) indicates that students’ attitude had a statistically significant influence on optimal dietary intake through intention (β= 0.68, P< 0.01, N=230). Indirect perceived behavioural control had a statistically significant influence on optimal dietary intake through intention (β=0.64, P<0.01, N=230). This was followed by subjective norm, which had a statistically significant influence on optimal dietary intake through intention (β= 0.52, P< 0.05, N=230). Intention was found to have the strongest prediction for optimal dietary intake (β = 0.95 P< .001, N = 230). Direct perceived behavioural control had the least influence on optimal dietary intake (β = 0.12, P> 0.05, N =230).

Discussion

This study focused on examining motivational beliefs [attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control] associated with students practice of optimal dietary intake of based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Influence of Student’s Attitude on Optimal Dietary Intake The default model had significant influence and was valued, since the forecasts supported the validity of the TPB model. The concept of influence involved dietary intake that was retrospectively explained by TPB, which allowed a prospective test of theoretical understanding. The influence of students’ attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and intention in extrapolating optimal dietary intake was tested. Standardized regression weights in (Figure 2) indicated that more students placed a high value on the health benefits of practicing optimal dietary intake (β = 0.68, P< 0.01, N = 230). Positive attitudes are associated with supportive significant others who motivated practice of optimal dietary intake [16]. Previously, revealed that associated health benefits were linked to practicing optimal dietary intake which had an impact on the attitudes of young adults in colleges. A recent study found that young adults, compared to middle-aged adults, had lower perception regarding optimal diets and health, suggesting a relatively low level of interest in health among young adults. Similarly, previous studies found that reasons for sub optimal dietary intake amongst the young adults were ‘poor attitudes’ and ‘wrong influence’. Thus, nutrition education, accurate information and right influence should positively impact on attitudes of students to practice optimal dietary intake based on one’s health concerns. In this study, students’ attitude was perceived to be associated with optimal dietary intake knowledge, influence of significant others and self-efficacy of the student. This illustrates that attitude correlates with other factors for it to be optimal. The current study established a statistically significant correlation between students’ attitude and subjective norm (r= 0.95, P= 0.001). The correlation between attitude and perceived behavioural control was stronger, positive and statistically significant (r = 0.97, P= 0.001). Contrary students may have positive attitudes towards optimal dietary intake although the obstacles they encounter surpass their ability to optimally practice the behaviour.

Influence of Student’s Subjective Norm on Optimal Dietary Intake

Subjective are the behavioural standards that exist in a social group for what is considered correct and appropriate behaviour [17], and they emerge from the shared practices and expectations of the group members. Previous research has shown that, through changing individual’ perceptions of existing social norms, various kinds of health behaviours can be influenced, such as optimal dietary intake [18]. A student’s decision to optimally feed is influenced by what is socially acceptable, open to social and cultural influences. We examined normative influences in relation to referents differing in social distance, including family members, friends, colleagues and mass media. However, of particular interest in this study was the detailed analysis of student’s perception of social pressure from significant sources of reference and change in perception of these views in relation to balanced diets, diet diversity & variety and diet sufficiency.

This finding suggests that informal groups such as family members, friends, colleagues and mass media are important sources to influence the practice of optimal dietary intake in students. Previous studies using the TPB have suggested somewhat inconsistent results regarding the influence of significant others, partly supporting the results of the current study [19,20]. Previously, [21,22] argued that a potential way to improve individual’s dietary intake was to intervene in the social norms that govern eating behaviour. Improving the social norms surrounding optimal dietary intake may stimulate healthy instead of unhealthy dietary intake of an individual. Fostering strong combined relationships amongst significant other is fundamental to support any individual practicing optimal dietary intake. When social and environmental support systems are in place, making healthful choices becomes possible and has an opportunity to improve dietary habits [23].

Influence of Student’s Perceived Behavioural Control on Optimal Dietary Intake

A statistically significant influence of indirect perceived behavioural control [β = 0.64, P <0.01, N = 230] and a statistically least significant direct perceived behavioural control [β = 0.12, P &li;0.05, N = 230] were reported. Ajzen’s contended that the direct link may only be apparent when perceived control closely parallels actual control. We conjecture that perceived control did not parallel actual control in this group of respondents, for whom the sense of dietary intake control only exerted its effect more indirectly through intentions. The indirect measure was promising because it showed that though students have other obstacles to optimal dietary intake, they have confidence in their ability to practice it. Previous research reported positive relationship between indirect perceived behavioural control and intention [24]. It was hypothesized that perceived dietary intake control would influence optimal dietary intake as it would be similar to self- efficacy, since both are concerned with perceived ability to perform a behaviour. When a student has higher sense of self-efficacy regarding optimal dietary intake, they will react more positively when problems arise and persist when confronted with problems. Therefore, a higher perceived behavioural control score in the indirect measure should be associated with lower problem severity perceptions in practice of optimal dietary intake.

Increasingly, younger Kenyans inclusive of university students have access to more education opportunities, consequentially higher possibilities for nutrition knowledge and their dietary intake habits. Based on the study analysis, student’s attitude, subjective norm, and indirect perceived behavioural control had a statistically significant influence on their intention of practicing optimal dietary intake. However, the direct influence of perceived behavioural control on optimal dietary intake illustrated a very minimal prediction (β = 0.12, P > 0.05, N = 230). As the analytical results of [24] showed that although direct perceived behavioural control is reasonably explained by belief control, it does not in turn provide better prediction of intention over and above that provided by indirect subjective norm, attitude, and perceived behavioural control. Furthermore, [25] also claimed that the direct perceived behavioural control is less likely to be related to intention. Given that the influence of student’s attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control statistically influenced intention (β = 0.95, P < 0.001, N =230), this study established these psychosocial factors practically influences optimal dietary intake of students. This indicates that a unit change in student’s attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control was associated with a change of 0.68, 0.52, 0.64 units respectively, in intention. A variance of 74% was obtained for intention predictors, whereas direct perceived behavioural control and intention accounted for 68% of variance on optimal dietary intake. Thus, the aspect of predictability of psychosocial factors is not just a mere postulation but a logically proven detail.

Implications for Practice and Research

Our data reveal that psychosocial factors remain statistically significant in influencing optimal dietary intake of university students. Since students desire to practice optimal dietary intake but they encounter barriers that originate from their attitude, social pressures from significant referents and their self-efficacy [confidence]. These attitudinal, normative, and control beliefs, which the study has determined to be predictive, are optimal dietary intake barriers/facilitators that limit students’ capability of practicing optimal dietary intake. Hence, efforts should include further promotion and research into students’ perception of the value of optimal dietary intake that affects their attitude. Significant others should address the issue of social support and influence optimal dietary intake intention. Discussing the students’ worries, providing education on the anxiety response and offering help with structured problem solving and sustainable techniques may help alleviate the students’ self-efficacy towards optimal dietary intake, thus boosting their emotional support. To enhance students’ selfefficacy, they need to be informed of the challenges that may arise during practice of optimal dietary intake and how to overcome them. Therefore, this research confirms that psychosocial factors, namely, students’ attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control are important predictors of optimal dietary intake and may also hinder the practice of optimal dietary intake among young adults inclusive of university students.

Conclusion

Optimal dietary intake promoters, practitioners and researchers should capitalize on understanding and motivating young people including university students about these psychosocial factors that determine intention of optimal dietary intake by using the generated modified framework from Ajzen’s TPB. Since our findings support the use of the TPB to predict the influence of students’ attitude, subjective norm/social pressures and perceived behavioural control on optimal dietary intake intention, it is significant for programs to incorporate strategies that target individuals’ beliefs which in turn reveal what beliefs and factors need to be addressed for optimal dietary intake to be practiced. Although dietary intake of respondents in the 5 universities varied, they were only reported and controlled during analysis but not established. The analysis of dietary intake in each of the 5 universities could have been conducted by comparing model fitness indices; however, sample size did not allow for smaller clustering of respondents. This study recommends that educating university students about the benefits of optimal dietary intake, identifying barriers to optimal dietary intake, developing strategies to address the barriers and identifying the significant referents may be important areas to target for

 https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/influence-of-psychosocial-factors-on-optimal-dietary-intake-of-university-students-of-kenya.ID.000123.php

For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online

For more Food And Nutrition Please Click 

Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/

To Know more Open Access Publishers Click on Lupine Publishers

Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers

Follow on Twitter   :  https://twitter.com/lupine_online