Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition
Abstract
A
three-month laboratory feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the suitability
of cheese skipper larvae [maggots] as an alternative protein source for Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus niloticus) instead of fishmeal. The diets tested
were a commercial diet (Diet 1, 0% maggot inclusion) and a maggot diet (Diet 2,
100% maggot inclusion). The values obtained for both treatment groups indicated
nutritional adequacy of the diets. Non-significant differences were observed
between both treatment groups for nearly all the hematological parameters. A
marked increase in the total protein, ALT, AST and triglyceride levels was
observed in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet compared to the levels in the
blood of fish fed the commercial diet, suggesting health improvement in fish
fed the maggot diet. The replacement of fishmeal with maggot meal is acceptable
from a growth perspective and in terms of the observed histological
architecture. The results show that the maggot diet can be conveniently used as
a total replacement for fishmeal in the diet of Nile tilapia.
Abbreviation: Aquaculture; Maggot
Diet; Nile Tilapia; Blood Characteristics; Histology
Introduction
Approximately
60% of the fish body is protein, representing a very good source of inexpensive
protein for the growing world population. This aspect has led to the
development of aquaculture to increase fish production to meet the demand [1].
The aquaculture industry is the fastest growing food production industry in the
world, accounting for 50% of all fish consumed by humans [2]. The cost of
aquafeed is the main cost factor in aquaculture, accounting for approximately
70% of a fish farming venture [3]. The major protein source and preferred
choice in aquafeed is fishmeal due to the high quality of the protein with a
nearly balanced amino acid profile [4]. Fishmeal is the most expensive
component, leading to an exponential increase in the price of fish feed.
Therefore, it was necessary to search for substitute protein sources such as
inexpensive plant proteins [e.g., soybean meal, sunflower, cottonseed meal,
rapeseed meal] or animal proteins [e.g., shrimp waste, earthworms and insect]
[5-8]. These sources have high potential for supplying fish with the protein
needed for maximum productivity [9, 10]. Insects have been employed to produce
fish feed. Maggot larvae of flies or other insects have the ability to grow on
a wide range of substrates and seem to be candidates for the replacement of
fishmeal in fish diets [11-13]. Maggot meal has been reported to be highly
nutritive, with the crude protein content ranging between 43.9 and 62.4%, lipid
content between 12.5 and 21%, and crude fiber content between 5.8 and 8.2%
[14-16]. Maggot meal is also rich in phosphorus, trace elements and vitamin B
complex.
Blood
characteristics are effective and sensitive indices for monitoring
physiological changes in fishes. Analysis of blood indices has proven to be a
valuable approach for examination of the health status of farmed fish,
providing reliable information on metabolic disorders [17] and becoming a basic
part of fish health monitoring programmes [18,19]. The ingestion of numerous
dietary supplements has measurable effects on blood constituents [20].
According to Maxwell et al. [21], blood parameters are important for assessing
the quality and suitability of feed ingredients for farm animals. Alteration in
fish histology has been examined to identify changes, if any, in the tissue of
fishes fed alternative feeds. The digestive system of teleostean fishes has
been widely studied and described morphologically to determine the functions of
many specialized anatomical structures in relation to different feeding
adaptations [22]. Histological analysis of the digestive system is considered
to be a good and immediate indicator of the nutritional status of fish [23,24].
Histological methods used for assessment of different feed effects on the
livers and intestines of fishes were reviewed and explained by Raskovic et al.
[25]. The intestine and the liver are the most important organs involved in the
digestion and absorption of nutrients from ingested food; therefore, monitoring
of these organs is considered to be necessary [26] for assessing the effects of
ingredients used as raw materials of animal/plant origin. In this study, blood
characteristics and tissue histology were used to evaluate the suitability of
cheese skipper larvae [maggots] as an alternative protein source for tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus niloticus).
Material and Methods
Experimental design
A
total of 120 healthy Nile tilapia (O. niloticus niloticus) were used in the
present work. Nile tilapias [average initial weight 28-41 g and length 11-13.4
cm] were collected from the Nile River at Assiut, Egypt. The fish were
acclimated in the laboratory for at least 21 days. During acclimatization, the
fish were fed a commercial pellet diet twice per day and kept in a
recirculation system, ensuring high water quality (dissolved oxygen: 5.6 mg/L,
pH: 7.9, total NH3-N: 0.097 mg/L, and temperature: 25.5 °C). The composition of
the commercial pellet diet is provided in Table 1. After acclimatization, the
fish were divided into two groups. The first group was fed a commercial diet
(Diet 1), and the second group was fed a maggot diet (Diet 2) (Table 1). Each
group was assessed in triplicate. Experimental tanks were regularly cleaned,
and faecal matter was siphoned out daily.
Sources of ingredients and
diet preparation
Soybean
meal, wheat bran, rice bran, mix oil, premix, dicalcium phosphate, and fishmeal
were obtained locally from the market. The maggot meal used for this study was
prepared in the laboratory during the experiment using the larval stage of
Piophila casei skippers (fly larvae). The larvae were collected from
conventionally prepared cheese by the floating method. The homemade cheese was
mixed with running water, and the larvae that floated were collected with a
sieve. Maggots were harvested, washed, killed in tepid water and dried for 36
hours at 60 °C in an oven. Dried samples were milled using mortar and pestle.
The maggot powder was added to the components of the experimental fish food
according to the recommended amounts listed in Table 1. Two test diets were
formulated. Diet 1 (commercial diet) was formulated with the highest inclusion
level of fishmeal and without maggot meal. Diet 2 (maggot diet) was formulated
with the highest inclusion level of maggot meal and without fishmeal (Table 1).
All dry diet components, including vitamins and mineral mixtures, were
thoroughly mixed with oil. Water was added, and the feed was pressed into pellets
that were 1 mm in diameter. The wet pellets were dried for 3 days at room
temperature and stored at -2 °C until use.
Blood sampling
At
the beginning and end of the experiment, 9 fish from each treatment were
randomly selected for blood sampling. No anesthetic was applied to the fish, as
anesthetics can affect blood parameters. Two samples of peripheral blood were
collected by cardiac puncture as described by Osman et al. [27]. The first
sample was freshly collected in small glass tubes containing heparin solution
[0.2 ml/ml blood] as an anticoagulant. This sample was used for hematological
analysis. The second sample was collected and left to coagulate for 15–20 min
at 4 °C prior to centrifugation for 20 min at 3,000 rpm to separate the serum.
The fresh serum was subjected to biochemical analysis.
Haematological analysis
Whole-blood
samples were used for estimation of haemoglobin concentration (Hb),
hematocrit(Hct), red blood cell count (RBC), and white blood cell count (WBC)
using an automated technical analyzer (Celtic α MEK-6400J/K, TOKYO, JAPAN). The
mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and mean
corpuscular haemoglobin concentration [MCHC] were calculated as described by
Dacia and Lewis [28].
MCHC
[g/dl] = Hb / Hct × 100
MCH
[pg] = Hb / RBC × 10
MCV
[mm3] = Hct/RBC × 10
Biochemical analysis
Colorimetric
determination of the selected biochemical parameters was performed using a
spectrophotometer [Jasco-V530]. The absorbance of the sample was examined at an
appropriate wavelength within a range of 340 to 546 nm according to the
parameter tested. Commercial diagnostic kits from Biomatrix chemicals were used
for assays of total protein content (g/dl) as described by Henry [29],
cholesterol (mg/dl) as described by Thomas [30], triglycerides (mg/dl)as
described by Friedewald et al. [31], calcium(Ca, mg/dl) as described by Fiereck
[32], creatinine and urea (mg/dl) as described by Henry [29], glucose (mg/dl)
as described by Trinder [33], and aspartate aminotransferase (AST, U/I)and
alanine aminotransferase (ALT, U/I) as described by Reitman [34].
Histological analysis
At
the end of the experimental period, three fish from each tank were sacrificed
by decapitation. The livers and intestines were immediately dissected, fixed in
10% neutral buffered formalin, processed by conventional methods, sectioned at
3-5-μm thickness using a rotary microtome, and stained with hematoxylin-eosin
[35]. PAS staining was also performed on the liver sections to discriminate the
PAS-positive reactions caused by the presence of mucopolysaccharides and
glycoproteins. The sections were examined under a light microscope (Motic
microscope BA310 LED FL) and photographed using a DVC digital camera (HDCE-50
B). Twenty measurements of villus height (μm)were obtained using ImageJ (1.46)
software. Baeverfjord and Krogdahl’s [36] method was used to count goblet
cells.
Statistical analysis
Data
are presented as the means ± standard deviations. The data were analysed by
one-way analysis of variance [ANOVA] using a data analysis software system
[37]. Means were tested using Fisher’s least significant difference [LSD] test.
Two levels of significance were reported; *p<0.05; **p<0.01.
Results
Haematological parameters: Significantly
(P<0.05) increased RBC, Hb, and MCH values were recorded in the blood of
fish fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet in the final samples
compared to the initial blood samples (Table 2) Non-significant (P>0.05)
differences were observed in the MCV, MCHC, Hct, and WBC values between the
initial and final blood samples from fish fed the commercial diet and those fed
the maggot diet (Table 2). Non-significant (P>0.05) differences were
observed in the final RBC and WBC values between the blood samples from fish
fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet (Table 2). At the same
time, the final values of Hb, MCH, MCV, and MCHC were higher in the blood
samples from fish fed the commercial diet than in the blood samples from those
fed the maggot diet (Table 2). In contrast, the final Hct concentration was
higher in the blood samples from fish fed the maggot diet than in the blood
samples from those fed the commercial diet (Table 2). The final lymphocyte
concentration was lower than the initial lymphocyte concentration in the blood
of fish fed the commercial diet. The lymphocyte concentration exhibited a
non-significant (P>0.05) increase in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet
compared to those fed the commercial diet (Table 2). The neutrophil
concentration exhibited a non-significant decrease in the blood of fish fed the
maggot diet. The final neutrophil concentration was higher in the blood of fish
fed the commercial diet than in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet (Table
2). The monocyte concentration exhibited a marked decrease in the blood of fish
fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet. The final monocyte
concentration was the same for both diets (Table 2). A significant (P<0.05)
increase in the final concentration of eosinophils was observed compared to the
initial concentration in the blood of fish fed the commercial diet and those
fed the maggot diet. No significant difference was observed in the concentration
of eosinophils between the fish fed the commercial diet and those fed the
maggot diet (Table 2).
Blood Biochemistry: Significantly
(P<0.05) increased final levels of total protein, cholesterol, and AST,
compared to the initial levels, were observed in the blood samples from fish
fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet. Significantly
(P<0.05)reduced final levels of glucose, triglycerides, and creatinine were
observed in the blood samples from fish fed the commercial diet and those fed
the maggot diet. The calcium level exhibited a significant (P<0.05) increase
in the blood of fish fed the commercial diet and a significant
(P<0.05)reduction in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet. Non-significant
changes were observed in the levels of blood urea and ALT in the blood samples
from fish fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet (Table 3).
Total protein, triglyceride, creatinine, ALT, and AST levels were significantly
(P<0.05) higher in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet (Diet 2) than in
the blood of those fed the commercial diet (Diet 1) (Table 3). In contrast,
glucose, cholesterol, and calcium concentrations were significantly higher in
the blood of fish fed the commercial diet than in the blood of those fed the
maggot diet (Table 3). Non-significant changes were observed in the levels of
urea and ALT in the blood of fish fed the commercial diet compared to the
levels in the blood of those fed the maggot diet (Table 3).
Histological Alterations: The experimental
diets used in the present study showed minor impacts on the histological
structures of the intestine and liver tissues of Nile tilapia, O. niloticus
niloticus. Analysis of the intestinal structures of fish fed the commercial
diet and those fed the maggot diet showed normal architecture, with a mucosa,
sub-mucosae, a muscular layer and a serosa (Figure 1). The anterior intestine
of fish fed the commercial diet exhibited normal architecture, with circular
muscles, longitudinal muscles, a serosa and short villi. A large number of
small goblet cells were observed (Figure 1). The anterior intestine of fish fed
the maggot diet exhibited normal architecture, with longer villi than those
observed in fish fed the commercial diet. Small goblet cells were also observed
in the intestines of fish fed the maggot diet (Table 4 and Figure 1). The
posterior intestine of fish fed the commercial diet showed a narrow lumen and
short and weak branched villi with a wide lamina propria. Normal appearance of
circular muscles and sub-mucosae were observed. Large numbers of small goblet
cells were observed (Table 4 & Figure 2). On the other hand, the posterior
intestine of fish fed the maggot diet showed a wide lumen, long and branched
villi, a narrow lamina propria, and normal appearance of the muscularis and
sub-mucosae. Few goblet cells were observed in these samples (Table 4 and
Figure 2).
The
anterior and posterior intestines of fish fed the commercial diet showed
detachment at the base of the villi between the circular muscles and villi
(Figures 1 & 2). Lymphocyte infiltration in the villi, lamina propria and
mucous membrane were observed in the intestines of fish fed the commercial
diet. Blood cell congestion was observed in the lamina propria of fish fed the
commercial diet. On the other hand, only slight lymphocyte infiltration was
observed in the intestines of fish fed the maggot diet (Figures 1 & 2).
Histological analysis of the livers of fish fed the commercial diet and those
fed the maggot diet showed normal architecture of hepatocytes, with a regular
shape and large centrally located nuclei. Large intracytoplasmic vacuoles and
blood cell congestion in the sinusoidal blood vessels were observed in the
livers of fish fed the commercial diet. Additionally, low glycogen levels were
observed in the liver tissues. On the other hand, small intra-cytoplasmic
vacuoles were observed in the livers of fish fed the maggot diet, and high
glycogen levels were observed.
Discussion
The
primary objective in fish nutrition is to provide a nutritionally balanced
mixture of ingredients to support the vital functions of fishes at an
acceptable cost [38]. Blood parameters are an important tool for monitoring
both the nutritional status and health status of fishes [39]. In recent years,
increasing attention has been given to haematological studies as an integral
part of the examination of the health conditions and productivity of fishes.
The effect of maggot meal as a feed supplement on the growth performance indicated
that this component was well utilized by O. niloticus niloticus [40]. The same
conclusion could be made based on the effects on the haematological and
biochemical parameters as well as the results of the histological
investigation. Changes in the blood indices of fish as a result of feed have
been previously reported [41]. The haematological values obtained for both
treated groups indicated the nutritional adequacy of the diets, as the values
did not indicate nutritional deficiency [42]. Non-significant differences
(P>0.05) were observed among the groups for nearly all the haematological
parameters, except RBC, Hb and MCH. These parameters increased markedly after
three months of exposure via the blood in Nile tilapia fed the commercial diet
and those fed the maggot diet. The fish given the commercial diet exhibited the
highest RBC and Hb values, although the values were within the normal ranges.
Fish fed the maggot diet exhibited the lowest RBC and Hb values. The
differences in the final values of RBC and Hb between the blood of Nile tilapia
fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet were non-significant.
This finding seems to confirm that the fish were not negatively influenced by
the inclusion of maggot meal in the experimental diet. The high values of MCV
and MCH observed here, however, may not indicate a serious problem, because the
PCV, RBC, WBC, Hb and MCHC in all the treatments were within the normal ranges
for healthy fish. The non-significant differences in the evaluated parameters between
the two diets implies that maggot meal can successfully replace commercial meal
in fish diets. This result is consistent with the reports of other authors who
have observed improved performance of fish fed diets containing maggot meal
over those solely fed commercial meal. Thus, this finding reflects the
nutritive quality and acceptance of this biomaterial [43]. The result also
corroborates previous observations that maggot meal, similar to other animal
protein sources, is well accepted and utilized by fish [44-46]. Some
haematological values observed here appeared to be slightly lower than those
reported for tilapia by some authors but were within the acceptable range.
Notably, the variations in haematological values within species can be
influenced by environmental conditions, sex, age, origin, breeding system, and
feeding, among other factors [47]. There was no significant difference in WBC
in fish fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet. For both diets,
the WBC decreased from an initial value of 19.16 × 103/μl to a final value of
19.08 × 103/μl. The values of WBC recorded here were within the range reported
by Bittencourt et al. [45] for healthy Nile tilapia. These results indicate
that the fish were healthy. Reduction in the WBC value to below the normal
range [which is not the case here] is an indication of allergic conditions and
can be harmful to fish because these cells play an important role in the innate
immune system [48, 49]. Lymphocytes produce antibodies that provide defence against
infection. Lymphocytes represented the highest proportion of the WBC in the
blood of fish in this study. This finding is in contrast with the WBC
composition in most livestock, with neutrophils exhibiting the highest
proportion. Neutrophils were in the second most abundant, representing
approximately 30% of the total WBC in the blood of Nile tilapia fed the
commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet. At the end of the experiment,
the percentage of lymphocytes was high in the blood of fish fed the maggot
diet, while the percentage of neutrophils was high in the blood of fish fed the
commercial diet. This finding can explain the constant percentage of monocytes
and eosinophils in the blood of Nile tilapia fed the commercial diet and those
fed the maggot diet. The concentration of monocytes in the blood of Nile
tilapia in this study was within the normal range. The monocyte concentration
in the blood of Nile tilapia fed the commercial diet and those fed the maggot
diet ranged from 1.3% to 2.3%. This finding was consistent with the results of
Kelly [50], who reported that monocytes constitute less than 10% of the total
WBC in animals of all species. Basophils were not observed in the blood of fish
in this study. This finding is similar to the results obtained in most
livestock. Kelly [50] reported that basophils rarely occur in the blood of all
species of livestock. Biochemical parameters vary among species and can be
influenced by many biotic and abiotic factors, such as water temperature,
seasonal pattern, food, age and sex [18]. A marked increase in the total
protein level was observed in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet compared to
that in the blood of fish fed the commercial diet. The low plasma protein level
observed in Nile tilapia fed the commercial diet may be a consequence of
decreased protein absorption by the relatively short villi observed in these
fish. These results suggested that fish health was improved when the fish were
fed the maggot diet. Although there was an increase in serum protein levels,
the increased levels of ALT and AST suggest protein catabolism at the high
dietary protein levels present in the maggot diet [51,52]. The increase in ALT
and AST activities observed in Nile tilapia fed the maggot diet may reflect the
use of excess hydrocarbons from amino acids to meet energy demands. Similar
responses were observed in Oncorhynchus mykiss for ALT [53] and in Rhamdia
quelen for AST and ALT [54]. Blood glucose levels may vary according to season
and water temperature and may decrease with increasing ages and sizes of fishes
[55]. Plasma glucose levels in fishes increase during stress, probably due to
the action of catecholamine on stored glycogen in liver and other tissues [56].
Here, elevation of plasma glucose was not observed in either feeding group. The
level of glucose was lower in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet than in the
blood of those fed the commercial diet. In this study, cholesterol
concentrations increased from 50.1 to 140 in fish fed the commercial diet (Diet
1), while in fish fed the maggot diet (Diet 2), cholesterol concentrations
increased to only 119.17. The cholesterol concentration in the blood of fish
fed the commercial diet was higher than that in the blood of fish fed the
maggot diet due to the high proportion of fat in the chemical composition of
the feed. Because glucose and cholesterol levels were within the normal range,
possibilities of anorexia, diabetes, liver dysfunction and malabsorption of
fat, which are symptoms of abnormal glucose and glucose levels in the blood
[57], were ruled out. The triglyceride levels in the blood of fish fed the
maggot diet were significantly higher and nearly twice those found in fish fed
the commercial diet. Similar results were obtained in Liza klunzingeri by
Mohammadizadeh et al. [58]. The triglyceride levels increased significantly due
to the increase in protein levels in the maggot diet, which may be because the
muscle is a pivotal compartment that is directly linked to amino acid turnover.
The level of calcium was significantly low in the blood of fish fed the maggot
diet. The creatinine level was high in the blood of fish fed the maggot diet.
The urea level exhibited non-significant changes in the blood of fish fed the
commercial diet and those fed the maggot diet during the experimental period.
The histological structure of the fish digestive system has been well
documented [59,60]. Examination of the intestinal histology of aquaculture
species is important for understanding pathological alterations related to infectious
diseases or promoted by nutritional sources [61]. Although fish histological
studies provide much information regarding the gastro-intestinal tract [62],
further information is needed regarding morphological adaptations to variations
in diet nutrients, which could affect diet formulation. Histological analysis
of the digestive system is considered to be a good method to determine the
nutritional status of fishes [23,24], and identification of the structural
variations is useful for studies on nutritional development [63,64].
Histopathological changes in the intestine may vary depending on the species
and feed used in the experiments [65]. The flexibility of the piscine
gastro-intestinal tract for adaptation to food availability has been well
studied [65,66]. In the present study, the intestines of fish fed the
commercial diet exhibited normal architecture, with short villi, a wide lamina
propria, a large number of small goblet cells, lymphocyte infiltration, and
blood congestion. In the case of Nile tilapia fed the maggot diet, the anterior
intestine exhibited normal architecture, with long villi, a narrow lamina
propria, few small goblet cells, and slight lymphocyte infiltration and blood
cell congestion. The histological alteration observed in the intestines of fish
fed the commercial diet, that is, shortening of the villi, widening of the
lamina propria, lymphocyte infiltration, blood cell congestion, and increasing
number of goblet cells, was previously identified as enteritis [67,37]. The
same changes were also observed in the intestines of salmonids fed full-fat
diets [68,67]. Generally, widening of the lamina propria was accompanied by
profound infiltration of a mixed population of inflammatory cells such as
lymphocytes, neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and eosinophilic granular
cells [67,68]. Similar results were observed when fishmeal was replaced with
sunflower meal in the feed of sharpsnout sea bream (Dyploduspuntazzo Cetti)
[69]. Villus length is a useful histological parameter that can be monitored
not only in experiments regarding the replacement of fishmeal but also in the
evaluation of different types of commercial feed.
Based
on the present results, we can conclude that the selected commercial diet is
rich in fat and proteins of plant origin compared to the maggot diet, which is
a 100% animal protein product. An increase in villus length is associated with
an increase in the surface area for absorption of nutrients [70]. The long
villi found in fish fed the maggot diet indicate high efficiency in the
absorption process [24,71]. This high efficiency was evidenced by the improved
growth performance of fish fed this diet [12]. This finding shows that the
maggot diet promoted an increase in villus length in these fish. A decrease in
villus length leads to reduced surface area for nutrient absorption [71], which
may also explain the poor condition of the liver observed in fish fed the
commercial diet. The number of goblet cells could vary with feeding habits or
starvation [72]. A higher number of goblet cells was observed in the intestines
of fish fed the commercial diet than in those of fish fed the maggot diet.
Goblet cells are associated with the immune system and act through the mucus as
a lubricant. The increase in the number of goblet cells may be an indication of
increased irritation [71], as these cells produce the mucus lining the brush
border. This mucus serves as a lubricant, providing protection against chemical
and mechanical damage. The increase in goblet cell number may also be an immune
response against anti-nutrients [73]. The liver is of significant importance
for nutrition and homeostasis in fishes. The liver of O. niloticus niloticus
fed the commercial diet showed normal architecture, with normal hepatocytes and
blood sinusoids. Large intra-cytoplasmic vacuoles and blood cell congestion in
the sinusoidal blood vessels were observed. Low glycogen levels were recorded.
Additionally, a normal architecture was observed in the liver of Nile tilapia
fed the maggot diet, with normal hepatocytes and blood sinusoids, small
intracytoplasmatic vacuoles, and high glycogen content. In conclusion, the
haematological and blood biochemical analyses suggest improvement of fish
health upon dietary administration of maggotsupplemented feed. The obtained
results showed no negative effect on the histology of the visceral organs of
Nile tilapia fed the maggot diet, suggesting that this diet is essentially good
in terms of growth and utilization [72-74]. The replacement of fishmeal with
maggot meal is acceptable from a growth perspective and in terms of the
observed histological architecture. Thus, maggot meal could be an alternative
animal protein source in fish diets to lower the production cost of fish diets.
In future experiments in the area of fish nutrition, the histological status of
the intestine should always be considered. This analysis should provide
additional information regarding the state of this organ if any of the
mentioned methods are used [75,76]. These methods are valuable in field experiments
as well as in the laboratory. Maggots are a good alternative protein source for
O. niloticus niloticus. However, further studies with tilapia and other fish
species are needed to validate this conclusion.
Acknowledgement
The
first author is grateful for the continuous support from the Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation
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