Lupine Publishers | Studies on Antibiotic Residues in Beef and Effect of Cooking and Freezing on Antibiotic Residues Beef Samples

Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition 

Abstract

The study was performed to determine the presence of antibiotic residues in 50 random samples of fresh beef marketed at Giza governorate, Egypt. The detection of antibiotics residues was carried out according to methods recommended by Hietzman (1994) (4-plates test) and USDA (2011) (Bioassay test).the obtained results indicated that the incidence of antibiotic residues in the examined samples was 3 samples of amino glycosides, 2 samples of B-Lactams (penicillin), one sample of Ciprofloxacin one sample of oxytetracycline. It was shown that 2% of the samples contain Sulphonamides and Ciprofloxacin, (B-Lactam +Oxytetracyclines), (Sulphonamides + Oxytetracycline), (Sulphonamides plusB-Lactam), (Aminoglycosides plus Ciprofloxacin),(Macrolides plus Ciprofloxacin) (Aminoglycosides plus B-Lactam), (Macrolides plus B-Lactams), (Macrolides plus Oxytetracycline. on the other hand, 4% of the samples were regarded for Aminoglycosides plus Oxytetracyclines, Macrolides plus Ciprofloxacin. The study revealed that 13 samples of beef out of 50. The experimental part of this study determines the residues of ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracyclines in experimentally treated rabbits’ samples (50 rabbit) after cooking treatments (Boiling; Microwave; Roasting) and freezing of the rabbit samples. The method of determination of the residues using HPLC. It found that, In Boiling for 30min : reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 20.74% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 87.97%, and in Microwave for 20min reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 38.14% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 86.95% , And Roasting for 30min. at 100 °C .reduction of ciprofloxacin residues by 12.84% and oxy tetracyclines residues by 73.98% , Three thigh and breast from each group were kept deep freeze at -20 °C. reduction of ciprofloxacin For 6 months freezing is 65.73% and 12 months freezing is 100% and reduction of oxy tetracycline’s residues For 6 months freezing is 4.41% and 12 months freezing is 30.01%. The public health significance of the antibiotic residues in beef and their probable sources of their presence as well as some recommendation to prevent to gain access to such food items were discussed.

Keywords: Beef; Residues; Oxytetracycline

Introduction

The veterinary drugs used in food producing animals has led to residues occurring in animal products as (meat, milk, eggs and honey), poses a health hazard to the consumer. Due to drug's properties and their pharmacokinetic characteristics, physicochemical or biological processes of animals and their products are subsidiary factors for occurring of residues of veterinary drugs and Improper drug usage and disrespect the withdrawal period. The major public health significances of drug residue are development of antimicrobial drug resistance, hypersensitivity reaction, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, and disruption of intestinal normal flora [1]. Nowadays Antibiotics are applying for control of infectious diseases in chickens' digestive system; incorrect use of these drugs deposits some residue in product. Impacts of different types of cooking and freezing on antibiotic residues in chicken meat were done by determination the residues of ciprofloxacin and oxytetracycline in experimentally treated chickens' muscles after cooking treatments (Boiling, Microwave, Roasting) and freezing of the chicken muscles [2]. Treatment of food animals with therapeutic and sub therapeutic dosage forms of antibiotic-antimicrobial drugs has increased in the last decade. This has been due to the advent of modern mass production operations that involve the maintenance of thousands of animals simultaneously and requires the utilization of carefully formulated and medicated diets that serve to maximize growth, minimize production costs, and provide an acceptable consumer product that is wholesome and affordable. Animal feed that contain antibiotics and other antimicrobials as a prophylactic are used routinely in beef, swine, chicken, and turkey production. In this way the antibiotics antimicrobials help to maintain the optimal health of the animals so treated antibiotics may be co-administered with antimicrobial drugs resulting in increase in drug effectiveness compared to individual drug administrations [3]. Indirect consumption of food contaminated with aflatoxins revealed public health risk to human. Aflatoxicos is leads to hepatocellular carcinoma and growth impairment. Many researches have suggested a link between antibiotic administration in food animals and increase in bacterial resistance in human populations. In this cross-sectional study, the screening for antibiotic residues in kidneys was done using Microbial Inhibition six (6) plate method to provide baseline data for the prevalence of antibiotic residues in animals slaughtered in Abattoir and non- Abattoir slaughterhouse in Negeri Sembilan district areas. Basically, the agar diffusion method uses six media which have been separately cultured with different types of bacteria that are relatively susceptible and resistant towards specific antimicrobial at certain pH level. Forty-one (41) kidney samples and another fourteen (14) samples were obtained from non-abattoir and approved (Senawang, Negeri Sembilan Abattoir) slaughterhouses respectively. 14 (34 %) of the 41 kidney samples from non-abattoir slaughterhouses and 1 (7%) of the 14 samples from non-abattoir slaughterhouses were positive for antibiotic residues. The result of the study revealed significant association (p<0.05) between types of slaughterhouse positive for antibiotic residues using chi-square test and confirmed using Binomial logistic Regression. The test divulged seven times possibility of the samples taken from non-abattoir slaughterhouse to test positive. However, there were no significant differences between all groups of antibiotics from the positive samples. From this study, it is imperative to include more study areas and sample size to conclude the safety of the meat for consumers in [4] boiling for 30 minutes caused a great degradation of tetracyclines residues "oxytetracycline" residues in rabbit meats but not complete destruction. Freezing at -20 ºC caused a lower degradation than that caused by boiling, so neither boiling nor freezing could be used as reliable methods to get rid of tetracyclines residues "oxytetracycline" residues in rabbit meats [5]. demonstrated that ordinary cooking procedures boiling decreased the initial concentrations of tetracycline residues by 56 to 82%. Also, microwaving degrades the initial concentrations of tetracycline residues by 56 to 82% [6].

Material and Methods

Collection of samples

A total of 50 fresh raw beef meat from different cuts of carcasses were collected from Giza governorates shops. The average weight of each sample 250g; each sample was put in sterile polyethylene bag then sealed and labeled. The samples were transferred to the laboratory in ice box without delay. The samples were frozen at (-18 °C) until examined within few days. The detection of antibiotics residues was carried out according to methods recommended by Hietzman (4-plates test) and USDA (2011) (Bioassay test).

Determination of ciprofloxacin: (Agar diffusion by Lieve Okerman, 1998)

samples were confirmed by HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) by pooling all positive samples for ciprofloxacin in only two samples [7].

Determination of (Tetracyclines) Oxytetracycline Residues in meat Tissues (USDA 2011)

samples were confirmed by HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) by pooling all positive samples for ciprofloxacin in only two samples [8].

Experimental study

This study was planned to determine the residues of ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracyclines in experimentally treated rabbits’ samples after cooking treatments (Boiling; Microwave; Roasting) and freezing of the rabbit samples. The method of determination of the residues using HPLC. The experiment was Planned as follow:

Rabbits: fifty rabbits (New Zealand species each weighed3kg) were divided into 3 groups (each 5 five rabbits) free from any antibiotics.

Drugs: Ciprofloxacin 10% ALNASR (Injection I/V) and Oxytetracyclines (20%, S/C, ADWIA).

Procedures: The first group was injected single dose (10mg/kg BWT(I/V) of ciprofloxacin. The second group was injected single dose oxytetracyclines S/C 5mg/kg Bwt. The third group was kept as control. The groups of rabbits were kept in cages for 24hr then slaughtered.

Samples: From each rabbit group (3 thighs and breast) was treated as follow:

Cooking: Boiling for 30min, Microwave for 20min, Roasting for 30minat 100 °C. Each cooked group was three of each (thigh and breast).

Freezing: Three thigh and breast from each group were kept deep freeze at -20 °C For 6 and 12 months. All for mentioned treated groups were either cooking or freezing were examined for the presence of ciprofloxacin and oxytetracyclines residues using HPLC according to [7].

Results

Discussion

Wrong use of antibiotics in food animal production causes wide spreading of resistant pathogens, resistance genes and antimicrobial resistant bacteria in food animals, whereas they enter the food chain so national authorities should put a serious laws and programs aimed to reduce the excessive using of antibiotics in food animals and ensure their risky usage. Due to farmers and meat producers don't follow the laws about withdrawal times of the products [9]. Spreading of antibiotic-resistant bacteria showed serious problems among public heath as mortality rates were increased in cases when resistant infections occurred and increase length of treatments so, require using more expensive antibiotics or antibiotic cocktails [10]. The Concentrations (ug/kg) of different antibiotics residues in each individual raw beef samples were illustrated in Table 1 and Chart1, the result showed 3 samples of amino glycosides, 2 samples of B-Lactams (penicillin),one sample of Ciprofloxacin were rejected according to EEC (1990).The Frequency Distribution of different types of antibiotics Residues in raw beef samples was shown in Table 2 and Chart 2, the frequency range of Aminoglycosides (Gentamicin), B-Lactam(Penicillin), Ciprofloxacin, Macrolides(Erythromycin),Oxytetracyclines, Sulphonamides were 4, 6, 6, 4, 5 and 3 respectively. 56% of samples were contained antibiotic residues [11]. Table 3 & 4 were viewed the effect of boiling on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 20.74% and 87.97%, respectively. The effect of microwave on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 38.14% and 86.95%, respectively that shown in (Table 5-8 chart 3), showed that the roasting effect on reduction for both ciprofloxacin and Oxytetracycline Residues in Rabbit muscle were 12.84% and 73.98%, respectively. Gehad [12] mentioned that Since the most of foods-producing animals are always cooked before consumption and the variations in oxytetracycline levels in the meat are dependent on type of cooking. More findings about the effect of cooking on oxytetracycline residue are needed to accurately determine consumer exposure to this drug. The boiling for 30 minutes and roasting at 150°C for 30 minutes caused a complete degradation of drug residues. After 6 months of freezing treatment at -18°C the ciprofloxacin reduced to 65.73% whereas after 12 months the same residues were not detected which viewed in Table 9 & 10. Aboul El [13] that said Controlling of ciprofloxacin residues by freezing at -18 c had a positive effect on degradation of its residues Morshdy et al. [5] said that Freezing at -20ºC caused a lower degradation than that caused by boiling so, neither boiling nor freezing could be used as reliable methods to get rid of oxytetracycline residues in rabbit meats [14,15]. 

Conclusion and Recommendation

From results in this study it is concluded that:

a. Misuse of antibiotics in large animals for treatment without follow of the withdrawal periods of drugs

b. High incidence of antibiotic residues beef meat due to excessive use of antibiotics [16].

c. The effect of cooking on some groups of antibiotic residues (ciprofloxacin and oxytetracyclines), showed

d. Freezing are the only effective methods to degrade ciprofloxacin residues to safety level then microwave, ciprofloxacin is heat stable compound degrade less by heat treatment process.

e. Microwaving and boiling and roasting are the effective heat treatment methods on degrading oxytetracycline residues to safe level. Microwaving and boiling could degrade oxytetracycline residues higher than roasting but freezing had low degrading effect on oxytetracycline residues [17].

Recommendation

It was concluded that The Application of HACCP system is recommended for beef production and other meat products

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Lupine Publishers | Nature vs. Nurture – Will the Species Survive?

 Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition

Short Communication

During the last half-century, human beings have developed new processes to both produce and preserve food for immediate and long term consumption. Such abilities would presumable result in increased survival of the species by reducing starvation and provide for times of need. The exact opposite has occurred; however, with recent increases in obesity and weight related disease (eg. heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, certain forms of cancer, et cetera) leading to an increase in the incidence of these diseases and related deaths. Arguments over who is to be blamed for these increased health problems has lead to various discussions implicating the food industry, the government, the pharmaceutical industry, and others, with efforts to even blame our ancestors by convincing ourselves that it is our genetic nature guised in the politically acceptable term, the “thrifty gene” hypothesis which is to blame. In fact for many people, any explanation except for individual accountability is an acceptable cause for the problem, but failure to correct the cause of the problem does not solve the problem, it merely masks it [1-4].

Having been involved in research [1-26] for almost four decades involving heart disease and the dietary factors which produce the inflammatory changes within our bodies which lead to this immunologic disease, it is clear that we need to consider this problem from a more fundamental perspective, namely a discussion of nature (that which we are genetically born with) versus nurture (those behaviors we exhibit in perpetuation of the species). The changes in our production, storage, utilization and consumption of food is clearly a change in behavior and such changes in behavior occur much faster than genetic mutation can occur. As we are seeing, the wrong behavior in any situation can be threatening to the survival of the species. Survival of the fittest proposes that only those species with the genetic predisposition for survival, which also exhibit the behavioral traits for survival, will endure changes presented to them. These changes may occur from sources outside the control of the species (eg. volcanic eruptions, temperature changes, meteorite impaction, et cetera), or they may be precipitated by the species itself. Like all species, we Homo Sapien Sapiens, have the ability to affect our environment for better or worse. In our earlier development, decisions to leave areas of protection (trees, caves, et cetera) and venture out into open areas where we were exposed, produced a situation where we were more the hunted than hunter. These efforts were successful, not because of a sudden genetic shift in the species (there is no data to support such a theory), but rather, a shift in our behavior (the ability to make and use tools/weapons) and our working together to out think our more physically agile and aggressive opponents. Those human ancestors who did not adopt such behavioral changes, but ventured out onto the plains without the necessary behavior to ensure their safety, undoubtedly provided lunch for other species which was the more fit for their environment. Hence, survival of the more adept species prevailed [5-8].

In the February 7, 2003 issue of Science, several authors discussed the need to further understand the neurohumoral pathways involved in the regulation of eating - hunger versus satiety. While such efforts are of scientific value, our focus as a society appears to be more related to the pharmaceutical development of drugs to manipulate these pathways than the understanding that behavioral change is needed. In other words, the focus has been to influence nature and not nurture. Such efforts fail to recognize the multiple lessons from the past that we should have learned regarding our efforts to manipulate nature, ignoring the impact of nurture, which can lead to serious consequences [9,10]. The issue here has not been a change in the genome of the human species, but behavioral changes which threaten our survival. For example, the genetic structure of Japanese immigrants who have migrated to the United States in the last 50 years, has not been associated with a genetic shift in the population, yet changes in the consumption of high fat, high calorie foods has lead to an increase in heart disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, elevated lipid (cholesterol, triglycerides) levels, and certain types of cancers, when compared with their Japanese ancestors of only two generations earlier. Similar problems have occurred among the children of China and Spain in a single generation; reflecting changes in (behavioral) eating patterns and not genetic shifts. Other groups frequently discussed, to support the need for manipulation of the neurohumoral pathways include the PIMA Indians, who have demonstrated a significant increase in obesity and diabetes during the last several decades resulting from changes in dietary and lifestyle habits, which when coupled with their leptin resistance, accelerated their inherent risk of disease; however, their leptin resistance existed long before their dietary changes and did not produce a health problem until changes in dietary patterns occurred following high calorie, high saturated fatty foods provided by the US government. Hence, the presence of a potential genetic problem was not realized until the behavioral changes occurred to make the problem a reality [11-18].

Efforts to manipulate the chemical processes of our bodies may result in more devastating problems than we currently have or are presently capable of understanding. For example, numerous anorexic medications have been used in an effort to result in weight loss. These medications have resulted in ocular problems [27], pulmonary problems [28, 29], hepatic [30] problems, and valvular problems [31-35]. Leptin itself was discussed throughout the Science articles as a regulator of hunger and like so many other substances found in the human body; leptin has more than one effect. It is now known, that leptin is involved with immunologic response and altering leptin levels whether by medication or dietary efforts, may improve heart disease by reducing the inflammatory component of the disease [19,20]. The utilization of medications may however affect more than just this component of leptin while the dietary changes which reduce caloric and saturated fat content have been shown to lower weight, which will not only reduce leptin levels, but the other inflammatory components of heart and other diseases as well. Our studies [2-14, 18, 20-21, 23-26] have looked at both the behavioral component of changing eating habits as well as the effect of medications. These studies have clearly shown that the successful approach to weight loss must include several key components. The problem is a behavior of excess consumption of calories and fat, not an excess of food availability. Individuals must make decisions several times a day regarding food consumption and the type of food they will consume. They do so based upon the information they hear and read. Clever advertisements and marketing by people hoping to profit by influencing human behavior has lead to more misinformation than information. These strategies have been used previously by suppliers of tobacco and alcohol products and clearly focus on influencing behavior and not genes [21-25].

Our research [2-14, 18, 20-21, 23-26] has shown that people clearly can loose weight and keep it off, by changing their eating behaviors. To do this one has to first accept that this is a behavior problem, which can and must be influenced through changes in behavior alone, instead of resigning to a naïve assumption that our genes are driving us to over consume food. An interesting twist on this approach has been the popularization of diets, which tell people they can consume as much food as they want and still lose weight. These extreme diets may suggest that one component of the diet alone is at fault, negating almost a century of scientific work establishing the need for balance with reduction in total caloric and saturated fat intake [26,27]. In fact, the reason for the success of such extreme diets is the reduction in total caloric intake, which results in weight loss. The second law of thermodynamics still applies! The consequence of extreme diets, however, is the potential adverse effects seen when heart disease, kidney disease, liver disease, bone disease and other health problems occur. As our research has shown, changes in eating behaviors with a balance in protein, carbohydrates and fat is not dependent upon the gene pool of people changing their eating patterns. Many eating patterns are learned (home, school, work, et cetera) and can be influenced through these same groups [29-32].

In the mid 1900s, we as a species, for better or worse, learned how to increase our production of our food, as well as our preservation of food by hydrogenation. We have not focused nearly enough on the quality of this food and its impact on our health. In 1999, as a member of the University of Northern Iowa advisory board, I was asked what I thought the greatest healthcare problem would be for the United States in the next century. My response, then as now, was simple and concise. Unless we change our current eating behavior we will become a bimodal society. My explanation is as follows. Those members of our society who have taken better care of themselves have not only benefited from this health of earlier years, but can currently take advantage of our ability to keep people alive longer. While we can extend the quantity of life, this does not mean we are improving the quality of life. Our school age children (those from Kindergarten through 12th grade) are showing ever-increasing problems resulting from increased weight and sedentary lifestyles. These problems affect ¼ to 1/3 of these children and include heart disease with elevated cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus and problems with weight (both overweigh and obesity). This increased incidence of health problems could very easily result in our children dying in their 20’s-50’s instead of their 70’s-80’s. As a consequence, the average life span will decrease. They will live long enough to conceive. This will, in the short span, lead to a stable population of children, and a stable population of older adults with a drop in numbers of people between 30-60 years of age. This bimodal population will lead to a healthcare crisis for two major reasons. First, the increased cost of caring for increasing numbers of people with heart disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and certain types of cancer, and secondly, because the adults who will be responsible for paying the taxes (30-60 year olds) to pay for healthcare will be fewer in number. This reduction in individuals financially supporting the healthcare system will result in a financial burden that cannot be maintained and the system will collapse, resulting in problems with delivery of healthcare and further problems. Perhaps this is the crisis, which will be necessary for us to change our behavior, analogous to watching our ancestors being eating on the Serengeti [33].

However, unlike natural disasters, which we cannot directly influence, we have produced this one and the human species need not eat itself into extinction. The same efforts being employed to develop drugs to manipulate our genetic response to eating could be put to better use to produce foods which have higher nutritional values, with less saturated fat and more complex carbohydrates. These foods are produced by many of the same companies who make the medications we take as a society. Similarly, our efforts could be directed towards improving our dietary and exercise patterns, beginning with our children and incorporating all age ranges. This would be considerably less costly to our society than the scenario outlined above. Like our eating behaviors, the decision to change the foods we make available for consumption, is also a conscious (behavior) decision, which in the end may determine the survival of the species. The only question is have we evolved enough to survive or just enough to cause our own extinction [34-36].

https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/fulltext/nature-vs-nurture-will-the-species-survive.ID.000128.php

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