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Wednesday, November 24, 2021
Lupine Publishers | Happy Thanksgiving wishes everyone
Friday, November 19, 2021
Lupine Publishers | Mini-Review Study of Adulterants and Diluents in Some Seized Amphetamine-Type Stimulants|
Introduction
Drug
The
definition of a drug is “any substance that in any part of the body changes
normal metabolism”. It also refers to any chemical substance taken to cure or
prevent disease, improve mental or physical performance, or deal with reality
or escape it. Drug abuse is nowadays a major global societal and economic
problem. Analysis of abused drugs and their metabolites in human blood, urine,
saliva, sweat, and hair, etc., has been a hot topic of research in recent years
as an important step in monitoring drug abuse [1].
Illicit drug
There
are many illegal drugs that are highly addictive and pose serious risks. Using
these drugs usually starts as an experiment or as a result of curiosity. Other
times, it may start with the medication prescribed for prescription pain to
treat an illness or injury. A user may become hooked overtime on the drug’s
mental or physical effects. This leads the user to need more of the substance
to have the same effects. A person with an illegal drug addiction will often
endanger their health and safety without help. In many parts of the world, the
use of legally banned psychotropic substances for non - medical purposes
appears to be increasing [2-4], but the rate of increase is difficult to
quantify. The prevalence of this behavior and its adverse health effects on
individual societies is difficult to estimate because this behavior is unlawful
and therefore often hidden. It is difficult even to estimate mortality
associated with illicit drug use, the most tangible adverse health effect, for
reasons discussed below [5]. Nevertheless, efforts must be made to estimate the
contribution that illicit drug use makes to the global burden of disease
because it is a pattern of behavior that has a significant adverse effect on
the health and well - being of those involved, resulting in significant loss of
life and disability [6].
Literature survey of
amphetamine
Amphetamine,
a powerful stimulant of the central nervous system (CNS), is used for syndrome
treatment [7,8]. Its derivatives were abused as recreational drugs and used as
unlawful euphoria. There is a high risk of dependence, so many countries have
issued strict regulations to control their consumption and reduce the abuse of
amphetamines. For example, amphetamines in the United Kingdom categorized as
Class B while in Canadian law they are in Class I. They are also classified as
illegal drugs in the European Union [9,10]. For many years, amphetamine and its
derivatives have been the classic, illegal drugs of abuse, but have recently
been replaced by a new legal alternative substance class, the cathinone -
derivatives, to undermine drug regulatory law [11]. Cathinone is a natural beta
- keto amphetamine analogue which forms the main component of the “Khat” plant
leaves of Catha edulis [11]. Cathinone - derivatives abuse has grown
significantly throughout the world due to their amphetamine - like stimulant
effects [12,13].
Occurrence and toxicity
of amphetamine
Methamphetamine
(METH) and its 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) derivative are widely
used psychostimulant medicines. Euphoria, alertness, decreased appetite,
increased locomotive activity, and hyperthermia are the acute effects of these
drugs. Psychosis, aggressiveness, and neurotoxicity may result from long - term
abuse of METH and MDMA. Especially due to its strong euphoric properties, METH
has a very high potential for abuse. According to recent reports from the
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) [14], METH and MDMA abuse is an
extremely serious and growing problem in the U.S. and around the world. The use
of METH and MDMA has been documented among significantly diverse populations.
For example, the use of amphetamines is increasing among young adults who
attend “raves” or private clubs. METH use is also high among people with HIV infection
[14]. Although the acute effects of these drugs are relatively well known, the
long - term effects and potential neurotoxicity associated with these drugs are
unclear.
Adulterants and
diluents in amphetamine
Illicit
drugs are seldom sold or used in their pure state throughout the world [15].
They are often mixed with other substances to provide a more manageable dosing
unit [16]. Heroin, amphetamine, and cocaine are often extensively mixed or
“cut” with a variety of substances, adulterants, and/or diluents to make it
appear that a larger quantity of drug is actually present, thereby increasing
the dealer’s profit [17,18]. It is important to identify potential hazardous
substances contaminating illicit drugs because these substances may be more toxic
than the drug itself. Examples of dangerous mixtures sold on the European drug
market are cocaine adulterated with atropine [19] or phenytoin [20]. Detailed
knowledge and understanding of street drug cutting agents can provide
distribution route information [21,22]. Comparative analysis can also support
the composition of cutting agents linking two or more samples together [23].
Therefore, it is important to know about possible changes in the prevalence of
these substances. Previous studies of adulterants and diluents seized in
Denmark have shown ongoing shifting patterns in the use and distribution of
various cutting substances [17,18].
Detection and
determination of amphetamine
A
body of substances known as “designer drugs” has been chemically synthesized in
recent years with similar effects to those of the oldest drugs. They include
amphetamines that the pharmaceutical industry initially developed and abandoned
due to their lack of therapeutic interest but are now being used as abuse
drugs. The 1990s saw a shift from the previous decade in the pattern of drug
consumption. Heroin and cocaine were the prevailing drugs used about ten or
fifteen years ago, and although they continue to be present in many drug
addiction cases, amphetamines have largely replaced them in recent years. Of
special interest among the latter are MDA and MDMA, the most widely used. Other
amphetamines of habitual use at present include MA, AP, and MDEA. A number of
experiments have shown that immunological techniques currently available are
scarcely specific and therefore likely to yield many false positive and
negative factors [23,24] this requires the use of more sensitive methods such
as gas chromatography (GC) for confirmation [25-27].This technique is sensitive
and selective enough for this type of determination.
Conventional GC-MS
method for analysis of amphetamine
Gas
chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC – MS) using electron impact
(EI) ionization mode is the most widely used abuse analysis technique [28].
Different enantioselective methods for the enantio separation of amphetamine
and its derivatives have been developed using several analytical techniques,
such as gas chromatography (GC) [29,30], capillary electrophoresis (CE)
[30,31], high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [30,11] and more
recently capillary electrochromatography Despite the availability of different
types of chiral stationary phases, sometimes with broad chiral discrimination
ability, it is still not an easy task to develop chiral separation) [32,33].
Small changes in the solvent structure or / and chromatographic /
electrophoretic environment often have major effects on the ability of many
CSPs to resolve chirals. Furthermore, it is difficult to predict which CSP
might be suitable for the manan - separation of a given chiral molecule and
most of the time one relies on a trial - and - error approach that is a time -
consuming, labor - consuming, and money - consuming process [34]. For many
separation techniques, different strate - gies have been defined, such as
normal phase liquid chromatography [35], reversed phase liquid chromatography
[36], polar organic solvent chromatography [37], supercritical fluid
chromatography [38] and capillary electrochromatography [39].
For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online
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Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/
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Saturday, November 13, 2021
Lupine Publishers | Mini-Review Study of Adulterants and Diluents in Some Seized Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition
Introduction
Drug
The
definition of a drug is “any substance that in any part of the body changes
normal metabolism”. It also refers to any chemical substance taken to cure or
prevent disease, improve mental or physical performance, or deal with reality
or escape it. Drug abuse is nowadays a major global societal and economic
problem. Analysis of abused drugs and their metabolites in human blood, urine,
saliva, sweat, and hair, etc., has been a hot topic of research in recent years
as an important step in monitoring drug abuse [1].
Illicit drug
There
are many illegal drugs that are highly addictive and pose serious risks. Using
these drugs usually starts as an experiment or as a result of curiosity. Other
times, it may start with the medication prescribed for prescription pain to
treat an illness or injury. A user may become hooked overtime on the drug’s
mental or physical effects. This leads the user to need more of the substance
to have the same effects. A person with an illegal drug addiction will often
endanger their health and safety without help. In many parts of the world, the
use of legally banned psychotropic substances for non - medical purposes
appears to be increasing [2-4], but the rate of increase is difficult to
quantify. The prevalence of this behavior and its adverse health effects on
individual societies is difficult to estimate because this behavior is unlawful
and therefore often hidden. It is difficult even to estimate mortality
associated with illicit drug use, the most tangible adverse health effect, for
reasons discussed below [5]. Nevertheless, efforts must be made to estimate the
contribution that illicit drug use makes to the global burden of disease
because it is a pattern of behavior that has a significant adverse effect on
the health and well - being of those involved, resulting in significant loss of
life and disability [6].
Literature survey of
amphetamine
Amphetamine,
a powerful stimulant of the central nervous system (CNS), is used for syndrome
treatment [7,8]. Its derivatives were abused as recreational drugs and used as
unlawful euphoria. There is a high risk of dependence, so many countries have
issued strict regulations to control their consumption and reduce the abuse of
amphetamines. For example, amphetamines in the United Kingdom categorized as
Class B while in Canadian law they are in Class I. They are also classified as
illegal drugs in the European Union [9,10]. For many years, amphetamine and its
derivatives have been the classic, illegal drugs of abuse, but have recently
been replaced by a new legal alternative substance class, the cathinone -
derivatives, to undermine drug regulatory law [11]. Cathinone is a natural beta
- keto amphetamine analogue which forms the main component of the “Khat” plant
leaves of Catha edulis [11]. Cathinone - derivatives abuse has grown
significantly throughout the world due to their amphetamine - like stimulant
effects [12,13].
Occurrence and toxicity
of amphetamine
Methamphetamine
(METH) and its 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) derivative are widely
used psychostimulant medicines. Euphoria, alertness, decreased appetite,
increased locomotive activity, and hyperthermia are the acute effects of these
drugs. Psychosis, aggressiveness, and neurotoxicity may result from long - term
abuse of METH and MDMA. Especially due to its strong euphoric properties, METH
has a very high potential for abuse. According to recent reports from the
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) [14], METH and MDMA abuse is an
extremely serious and growing problem in the U.S. and around the world. The use
of METH and MDMA has been documented among significantly diverse populations.
For example, the use of amphetamines is increasing among young adults who
attend “raves” or private clubs. METH use is also high among people with HIV infection
[14]. Although the acute effects of these drugs are relatively well known, the
long - term effects and potential neurotoxicity associated with these drugs are
unclear.
Adulterants and
diluents in amphetamine
Illicit
drugs are seldom sold or used in their pure state throughout the world [15].
They are often mixed with other substances to provide a more manageable dosing
unit [16]. Heroin, amphetamine, and cocaine are often extensively mixed or
“cut” with a variety of substances, adulterants, and/or diluents to make it
appear that a larger quantity of drug is actually present, thereby increasing
the dealer’s profit [17,18]. It is important to identify potential hazardous
substances contaminating illicit drugs because these substances may be more toxic
than the drug itself. Examples of dangerous mixtures sold on the European drug
market are cocaine adulterated with atropine [19] or phenytoin [20]. Detailed
knowledge and understanding of street drug cutting agents can provide
distribution route information [21,22]. Comparative analysis can also support
the composition of cutting agents linking two or more samples together [23].
Therefore, it is important to know about possible changes in the prevalence of
these substances. Previous studies of adulterants and diluents seized in
Denmark have shown ongoing shifting patterns in the use and distribution of
various cutting substances [17,18].
Detection and
determination of amphetamine
A
body of substances known as “designer drugs” has been chemically synthesized in
recent years with similar effects to those of the oldest drugs. They include
amphetamines that the pharmaceutical industry initially developed and abandoned
due to their lack of therapeutic interest but are now being used as abuse
drugs. The 1990s saw a shift from the previous decade in the pattern of drug
consumption. Heroin and cocaine were the prevailing drugs used about ten or
fifteen years ago, and although they continue to be present in many drug
addiction cases, amphetamines have largely replaced them in recent years. Of
special interest among the latter are MDA and MDMA, the most widely used. Other
amphetamines of habitual use at present include MA, AP, and MDEA. A number of
experiments have shown that immunological techniques currently available are
scarcely specific and therefore likely to yield many false positive and
negative factors [23,24] this requires the use of more sensitive methods such
as gas chromatography (GC) for confirmation [25-27].This technique is sensitive
and selective enough for this type of determination.
Conventional GC-MS
method for analysis of amphetamine
Gas
chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC – MS) using electron impact
(EI) ionization mode is the most widely used abuse analysis technique [28].
Different enantioselective methods for the enantio separation of amphetamine
and its derivatives have been developed using several analytical techniques,
such as gas chromatography (GC) [29,30], capillary electrophoresis (CE)
[30,31], high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [30,11] and more
recently capillary electrochromatography Despite the availability of different
types of chiral stationary phases, sometimes with broad chiral discrimination
ability, it is still not an easy task to develop chiral separation) [32,33].
Small changes in the solvent structure or / and chromatographic /
electrophoretic environment often have major effects on the ability of many
CSPs to resolve chirals. Furthermore, it is difficult to predict which CSP
might be suitable for the manan - separation of a given chiral molecule and
most of the time one relies on a trial - and - error approach that is a time -
consuming, labor - consuming, and money - consuming process [34]. For many
separation techniques, different strate - gies have been defined, such as
normal phase liquid chromatography [35], reversed phase liquid chromatography
[36], polar organic solvent chromatography [37], supercritical fluid
chromatography [38] and capillary electrochromatography [39]
For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online
For more Food And Nutrition Please Click
Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/
To Know more Open Access Publishers Click on Lupine Publishers
Follow on Linkedin : https://www.linkedin.com/company/lupinepublishers
Follow on Twitter : https://twitter.com/lupine_online
Tuesday, November 2, 2021
Lupine Publishers | Pastoralists’ Perception of Resource-Use Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestock Development and Animal Agriculture in Southeast, Nigeria
Lupine Publishers | Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition
Abstract
One of the major but hidden challenges to livestock development and animal
agriculture the world over is resource-use conflicts between crop farmers,
pastoralists and other land users. This is so because during conflict
situation, almost all human livelihood activities come to a standstill
including livestock farming. This study therefore sought to examine how
conflicts involving different land users hinder livestock production.
Questionnaire and oral interview were used to obtain information from a total
of 120 pastoralists in three selected states of Southeast (Abia, Enugu and
Imo). Data were analyzed using percentages, mean and standard deviation. The
results showed that the mean age of pastoralists was 38, and the mean household
size was 10, mean herding experience was 18. The following were the causes of
resource-use conflicts - blocking of water sources by crop farmers with a mean
(M) response of 3.30, farming across cattle routes (M = 2.95), burning of
fields (M = 3.30), theft/stealing of cattle (M = 3.40), among others. The
factors attracting the pastoralists to the study area were availability of
special pasture (M=2.37), availability of land for lease (M=2.52), water
availability (M=2.60) among other reasons. Conflicts, therefore, affect
livestock production in the following ways - unsafe field for grazing, poor
animal health, loss of human and animal lives, abandonment of herds for dear
life and many others.
Keywords: Animal; Agriculture; Conflict; Livestock; Pastoralists
Introduction
In Nigeria, grazing lands are rarely demarcated, and this large sector of
agriculture always suffers compared to crop farming or fruit plantation [1].
The latter two are mostly demarcated favorably for the fact that most people
are sedentary, and areas needed are small. The establishment of demarcated
rangelands and passageways (cattle corridors) allow the livestock to access water
points and pastures without causing damage to cropland [2]. Pastoralists
usually graze over areas outside farm lands, and these have been accepted to be
the norm from time immemorial. Their movements are opportunistic and follow
pasture and water resources in a pattern that varies seasonally or year-to-year
according to availability of resources [2].
Livestock production in the form of pastoral livestock keeping is among the
most suitable means of land use in arid areas of Africa because of its
adaptability to highly variable environmental conditions. In Nigeria, most
pastoralists do not own land but graze their livestock in host communities [3].
While a few have adopted the more sedentary type of animal husbandry, the
increasing crises between farmers and pastoralist presupposes that grazing is a
major means of animal rearing in Nigeria. The livestock sector in Nigeria is
plagued by several challenges such as lack of adequate supplies of quality feed
and pasture, diseases, weak market network, unavailability of adequate water
and poor veterinary services [4- 7], reiterate that the sector is constrained
by institutions, markets and policy as well as technical issues. More recently
concern on herdsmen-farmers’ conflicts has appeared in literature and policy discourse
as one of the formidable challenges facing livestock production (particularly
ruminant) in many developing countries. Resource-use conflicts in Nigeria have
persisted and stands out as a threat to national food security, livestock
production and eradication of poverty with pastoralists often regarded as the
most vulnerable. Resource-use conflicts not only have a direct impact on the
lives and livelihoods of those involved, they also disrupt and threaten the
sustainability of agriculture and pastoral production in West Africa [8]. So
many land users make their livelihood within the same geographical, political,
and socio-cultural conditions, which may be characterized by resource scarcity
[9] or political inequality and population pressure. Pastoralists are believed
to be more vulnerable compared with farmers because their cattle can be
confiscated and/or seized and released only on payment of a fine. Besides,
sometimes they are in the minority and could lack political power to their
advantage [10].
Resource use conflicts/clashes according to Adisa and Adekunle [11], are
becoming fiercer and increasingly widespread in Nigeria. A study of 27
communities in central Nigeria by Nyong and Fiki [12] shows that over 40% of
households surveyed had experienced agricultural land-related conflicts, with
respondents recalling conflicts that were as far back as 1965 and 2005. Okoli
and Atelhe [13], showed that about 13 cases of farmer- herdsmen conflicts
across states of the federation which claimed 300 lives of the citizens. In
Abia, Enugu and Imo States, there have been cases of conflicts between
pastoralists and crop farmers in Umunneochi, Ugwunagbo Uzo-uwani,
Nkanu-West,Udi, Ohaji/Egbema, Owerri West, and Okigwe areas of the States over
crop destruction by cattle, killing of herders and stabbing of farmers
following reprisal attack on different occasions [14]. Therefore, the study
examined challenges of resource-use conflicts to livestock production in the
Southeast region of Nigeria. It specifically sought to: describe the
socioeconomic attributes of respondents; b. examines causes of conflicts as
perceived by the pastoralists; c. identifies factors that attract the
pastoralists to the state; and, d. ascertain challenges of resource-use
conflicts to livestock agriculture.
Methodology
This study was conducted in Southeast agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. The
zone lies within latitudes 5oN to 6oN of the equator and longitudes 6oE and 8o
E of the Greenwich meridian. Southeast Nigeria is made up of five (5)
states-Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The zone occupies a total land
mass of about 10, 952, 400 hectares with a population figure of about
33,381,729 persons in 2018 projected from 2006 National Population Commission
Census figure [15]. About 60-70% of the inhabitants of the zone are observed to
engage in agriculture, mainly crop farming and animal rearing [16]. The 2-stage
sampling technique was adopted in the process of sample selection. The first
stage was the purposive selection of three states from the Southeast
agroecological zone where cases of farmer-pastoralists conflicts have occurred
and were reported (Abia, Enugu and Imo). The second stage involved the random
selection of 120 pastoralists from the list of 180 pastoralists from their
various camps in the three states. Both primary and secondary data sources were
used. Simple descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage, frequency
distribution was used to analyze the socio-economic characteristic of the
respondent. Objective 1 was analyzed using percentage presented in table. Mean
was computed on a 4-point Likert type rating scale of strongly agree, agree,
disagree and strongly disagree assigned weight of 4,3,2,1 to capture the
perceived causes of the conflicts (objective 2) and challenges of conflicts to
livestock development (objective 4). The values were added and divided by 4 to
get the discriminating mean value of 2.5. Any mean value equal to or above 2.5
was regarded as a major factor causing conflict and challenge to livestock
development, while values less than 2.5 were regarded none. Again, mean was
also computed for objective 3 which looked at factors attracting pastoralists
to the area on a 3point Likert type rating scale of very serious, serious and
not serious assigned values of 3,2,1. The values were added and divided by 3 to
obtain a discriminating mean value of 2.0. Any value with mean equal to or
greater than 2.0 was considered very serious and vice versa (Figure 1).
Results and Discussion
Socioeconomic Characteristics of Respondents
Table 1 showed that 83.3 percent of the pastoralists were married, while
16.6% were single. The predominance of married people among the pastoralists
could be attributed to the complementarity experienced in farm labour provision
at the household level. The man, woman and children pool their physical
reserves to keep the arm on course. It is worthy to note that there are
potential soldiers at the event of land use conflict. Whereas 85.8% of the
pastoralists had quranic education, 10 percent had primary education, then,
only 4.2% had no formal education. The pastoralists, all (100%) belonged to
social organizations; Islamic unions and or herder unions. These respondents
who belonged to social organization will likely benefit and share knowledge and
experiences through contacts and cross-fertilization of ideas. The organization
could also provide forum to plot, plan and execute attack.
The table reveals that 47.5 percent of the pastoralists indicated that the animals
are not their own but that of military officers, retired and serving. Some of
the animals are also owned by alhajis and traditional rulers in the north
(29.2%) who have established contacts with their kits and kins to protect their
interest where ever they may be. Also, 20.8 percent and 2.5 percent
respectively are owned by the pastoralists themselves and few politicians who
also trade in animals. The result explains the effrontery of the pastoralists
and their seeming more powerful than the natives who are always helpless at
their audacity. The mean age range was 38 years. This implies that the
pastoralists are also young and can endure the difficult nature of their
practice of trekking very long-distance day and night. The average herding
experience was 18 years. Experience is a valuable asset. The years of
experience of the pastoralists could enable them to relate encounters they had;
causes, effects and resolution. The mean herd size was 61. This is indeed
large, and it reveals the fears of the crop farmers should cattle numbering
into 30-100 invade their farms. A great deal of damage would be done,
livelihood activities may be lost, food insecurity enthroned in addition to
accentuated poverty. The average monthly income was N53,500.00. The pastoralists
in their course sell the cattle and they also reproduce under their care.
Perceived Causes of Resource-Use Conflicts in the Study Area
Table 2 showed the pastoralists perception of the causes of the conflicts
involving them and the crop farmers. Although they may seem to blame crop
farmers or shy away from reality of telling the truth. To them the causes of
the conflicts included blocking of water source by crop farmers (M= 3.30),
farming across cattle routes (M = 2.95), limited grazing areas (M = 2.70),
burning of rangeland/field by crop farmers (M = 3.28). They claim that farmers
block the wells, ponds and river routes where their animals drink. They also
assert that farmers set their grazing areas ablaze and farm across their animal
routes thereby hindering their movement. Other causes of conflict were claim of
land ownership (M = 2.64) by the farmers; farmers fight herdsmen (M = 3.00),
setting of traps along the cattle way (M = 2.74), harassment of pastoralists (M
= 3.01) by the youths, stealing/theft of cattle (M = 3.40), and poisoning of
water source (M = 2.80). The pastoralists see land as a free gift of nature and
as such nobody should prevent others from the use of it and make laws regarding
it against others. To them, land is for all and should be used as desired.
Factors Attracting Pastoralists to the Study Area
Table 3 showed that several factors attracted the Fulani pastoralists to the
state. Among the factors were water availability with a mean (M) response of
2.60 and availability of land to lease with mean score of 2.52. Water is life
of both man and animals and the availability of streams and rivers in the
Southern part of Nigeria becomes a reason for the pastoralists’ invasion of Imo
state. Again, even during the dry season, water sources remain intact as
families get water either from streams, rivers and even ponds. Land for lease
or rent (M=2.52) to the head of the pastoralists is also available. These lands
are mostly abandoned land not good enough for immediate crop production. The
pastoralists are given this type of land for a specified period of time.
Availability of special pasture with mean score of 2.37, market opportunity (M
= 2.04), absence of tse-tse fly (M = 2.41) and support/backing from influential
people with mean (M=2.11) were other reasons attracting pastoralists to the
study area. Special pasture here means grasses and legumes that are highly
nutritious to the animals and that can grow faster after being eaten by the
animals. It involves digestibility, palatability and fastens reproduction of
animals. This type of pasture draws the animals to the area often. Influential
people in community also work with the pastoralists. These include traditional
rulers who come in contact with the pastoralists, politicians, retired/serving
civil servants, and military men-retired/serving who have established relationship
with the pastoralists. Because they have the backing / support of those
individuals, the pastoralists flock to the study.
Conflicts as a Challenge to Livestock Development and Animal Agriculture
Conflict is a major challenge to livestock development and animal
agriculture not only in the study area, but the world over. Any situation that
brings chaos is not healthy for humans and animals as all will be restless and
disturbed. Table 4 revealed that during conflicts the grazing field for animals
becomes unsafe as shown by a mean response of 3.30, poor animal health (M =
3.27), animal/herd abandonment (M = 3.38), loss of human lives (M = 3.33), loss
of farm income (M = 3.37), cattle rustling/raiding (M = 3.32) and high cost of
animal products (M = 3.25). The above situation presents a big challenge to
animal agriculture as rearers of animals will put a stop to business and run
for their dear lives thereby making the livestock suffer neglect and
abandonment. Due to concern for human lives and property, the business of
animal rearing will take second fiddle, after all, the living will do the
things that are important because there is life. Again, during conflict,
livestock markets are closed (M = 3.20) as both buyers and sellers will be in
fear of going to the market to risk being attack. Market is an area where
buying and selling and other economic transactions take place for the survival
of man. When market for livestock is cease, the economic life of the people is
touched. Demand for livestock is reduced (M = 3.27), total loss of pasture (M =
3.40) where animals feed is also a challenge to livestock development and
animal agriculture. Conflicts reduces the facilitating functions of animals (M
= 3.21). Rearers of animals sell them for meeting up with their financial
obligation and family responsibilities. The money from cattle and other animals
facilitates the performance of other necessary roles, function and obligation
sponsoring social gathers and other traditional events.
Conflict changes the structure of livestock market which disproportionately
affects the livelihoods of livestock producers and livestock traders as well as
consumers’ access to livestock products. Other major factors are: insecurity of
trade routes; market closures or destruction; lack of demand; the departure of
traders from some conflict-affected counties FAO [17], forced migration of
millions of heads of livestock. In some cases, herders’ choices of migration
routes were influenced by the need to protecting their livestock rather than
feed and water availability.
Conclusion
Conflicts between pastoralists and crop farmers in agrarian communities
present a formidable challenge to livestock production in Nigeria. This is due
to the problems of incompatibility of livelihood strategies, competition for
access and use of natural resources such as land and water. Pastoralists - crop
farmers’ conflict has production and economic consequences for herding. Among
the most direct effects are loss of human lives, reduced number of livestock as
well as reduced access to water, pasture and even loss of homes. In addition,
the conflicts lead to distrust in other communities and a strong omnipresent
perception of insecurity which entails several and partly interconnected
subsequent effects. These effects include ineffective resource use, reduced
mobility, closing of markets and schools and obstacles for investments. There
is a need for effective conflict mitigation that breaks the cycle of violence,
retaliation and impoverishment. There is need to move from the conflicting to a
cooperative path, which could start by addressing the capability of the actors
For more Lupine Publishers Open Access Journals Please visit our website: https://twitter.com/lupine_online
For more Food And Nutrition Please Click
Here: https://lupinepublishers.com/food-and-nutri-journal/
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Blissful Thanksgiving!!!
Greetings from Scholarly Journal of Food and Nutrition (SJFN) Wishing you a harvest of blessings, good health and good times. Happy Thanksgi...
